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Scientia Praesentialis

2026-05-26T13:19:36Z

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{{Infobox philosophical term
| name = Knowledge by Presence
| title = Term in Islamic Philosophy
| full_name = al-‘Ilm al-Huduri
| other_names = Presentational Knowledge, Intuitive Knowledge, Illuminative Presentational Knowledge
| Arabic equivalent = اَلْعِلْمُ اَلْحُضُورِی
| Persian equivalent = علم حضوری
| european =
| field = Philosophy, Epistemology, Ontology
| philosophy = Islamic Philosophy, Transcendent Theosophy, Illuminationist Philosophy, Peripatetic Philosophy
| school = Transcendent Theosophy, Illuminationist Philosophy
| key_figures = Avicenna, Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi, Sadr al-Din Shirazi (Mulla Sadra), Allamah Tabatabai
| defenders = Suhrawardi, Mulla Sadra, Allamah Tabatabai, Qutb al-Din Shirazi, Shahrazuri
| first_used_by = Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi (systematic founding)
| earliest_text = ''al-Ta'liqat'' (Avicenna - background), ''Hikmat al-Ishraq'' (Suhrawardi)
| etymology = 'Presence' (hudur) in linguistic terms means 'being before' and 'unmediated disclosure'.
| definition = Knowledge in which the very objective reality of the known (its external existence) is present to the knower without the medium of a mental form (image).
| key_texts = ''al-Hikmah al-Muta‘aliyah fi al-Asfar al-‘Aqliyyah al-Arba‘ah'', ''Hikmat al-Ishraq'', ''Nihayat al-Hikmah''
| related = Acquired Knowledge (al-‘ilm al-husuli), Union of the Intellect and the Intelligible (ittihad al-‘aqil wa’l-ma‘qul), Illuminative Relation (idafah ishraqiyyah), Substantial Abstraction (tajarrud al-nafs), Divine Knowledge (al-‘ilm al-ilahi), Relational Being (wujud rabit)
| opposites = Acquired Knowledge, Discursive Knowledge
| prerequisites = Abstraction of the knower, Causality, Relational Being
| disputed = Yes (regarding its scope and object between Peripatetics and Illuminationists)
| western = Knowledge by Acquaintance (Bertrand Russell)
| eastern = Prajna (direct awareness in Buddhism)
}}

'''Knowledge by presence''' (Arabic: اَلْعِلْمُ اَلْحُضُورِی, romanized: ''al-‘Ilm al-Huduri''; Latin: ''Scientia Praesentialis'') is one of the two principal divisions of knowledge in Islamic philosophy, standing in contrast to [[acquired knowledge]] (''al-‘ilm al-husuli''). In this type of knowledge, the thing itself or the external reality (the object known in itself) is present and disclosed to the knower without the medium of a mental form (image). [[Mulla Sadra]] states on this subject: “'''Knowledge of a thing in truth is the presence of its essence before the knower'''”<ref>[[Mulla Sadra]], ''al-Hikmah al-Muta‘aliyah fi al-Asfar al-‘Aqliyyah al-Arba‘ah'', vol. 6, p. 163.</ref>, and [[Allamah Tabatabai]] writes in its definition: “'''The presence of the known through its existence to the knower'''”<ref>[[Allamah Tabatabai]], ''Bidayat al-Hikmah'', vol. 1, p. 139.</ref>. This concept is contrasted with acquired knowledge, in which the known is present to the knower through its quiddity (mental form).<ref>[[Allamah Tabatabai]], ''Nihayat al-Hikmah'', vol. 1, p. 237.</ref>

== Meaning and Conceptual Analysis ==

=== Terminological Meaning ===
Knowledge by presence, in contrast to acquired knowledge, is “the presence of the very objective existence of the known to the knower.” [[Sadr al-Din al-Shirazi]] (Mulla Sadra) divides knowledge in ''Mafatih al-Ghayb'' into three divisions: (1) The attainment of the essential identity of the effect for the cause (true knowledge), (2) The attainment of the identity of a thing for an independently existent entity by way of judgment (such as the knowledge of an abstract entity of itself), and (3) The attainment of the form of quiddity for the knower (acquired knowledge). He considers the first two divisions to be knowledge by presence.<ref>[[Mulla Sadra]], ''Mafatih al-Ghayb'', vol. 1, p. 108.</ref>

Allamah Tabatabai writes in ''Nihayat al-Hikmah'': “'''And the division of knowledge into two exhaustive divisions: either the presence of the known to the knower through its quiddity – which is acquired knowledge – or through its existence – which is knowledge by presence.'''”<ref>[[Allamah Tabatabai]], ''Nihayat al-Hikmah'', vol. 1, p. 237.</ref>

=== Reason for the Name ===
This knowledge is called “presential” because the relationship between the knower and the known in it is of the type of existential “presence” rather than quiddative “attainment.” In knowledge by presence, the distinction between knower and known is sometimes merely conceptual, and at other times it is analyzed in terms of a causal or sustenant relationship.<ref name="AvicennaTalifat148">[[Avicenna]], ''al-Ta'liqat'', vol. 1, p. 148.</ref> [[Suhrawardi]] also emphasizes this point, saying: “'''Every entity that perceives itself perceives the very essence of its own selfhood (ana’iyyah), and it indicates it by its statement ‘I’.'''” That is, every existent that perceives its essence refers to the very “I-ness” of itself, not to something superadded to the essence.<ref>[[Suhrawardi]], ''Sharh Hikmat al-Ishraq (Qutb)'', vol. 1, p. 283.</ref>

=== Semantic Development ===
Although the roots of knowledge by presence can be seen in Avicenna’s emphasis on “self-awareness” (''al-shu‘ur bi al-dhat''),<ref name="AvicennaTalifat148"/> it was Suhrawardi who proposed it as a comprehensive division in epistemology and extended it to include the knowledge of the cause for its effect and the knowledge of abstract beings for each other.<ref>[[Suhrawardi]], ''Majmu‘ah Musannafat Shaykh al-Ishraq'', vol. 1, p. 487.</ref> Later, Mulla Sadra in his Transcendent Theosophy blended this concept with his own ontological principles and emphasized the “identity of knowledge and existence.”<ref name="MullaSadraMabda83">[[Mulla Sadra]], ''al-Mabda‘ wa al-Ma‘ad'', vol. 1, p. 83.</ref> Allamah Tabatabai also offered a new exposition of it in ''Nihayat al-Hikmah''.<ref>[[Allamah Tabatabai]], ''Nihayat al-Hikmah'', vol. 1, p. 237.</ref>

== Place in the Philosophical System ==
Knowledge by presence plays a fundamental role in three major areas of Islamic philosophy:

# '''Epistemology (Theory of Knowledge)''': As one of the two basic domains of knowledge (alongside acquired knowledge). Knowledge by presence is considered the foundation and origin of all acquired sciences.<ref>[[Allamah Tabatabai]], ''Nihayat al-Hikmah'', vol. 1, p. 237.</ref> [[Sadr al-Din al-Shirazi]] writes in this regard: “'''Knowledge by presence is the most perfect of the two kinds of knowledge; indeed, true knowledge is nothing but it.'''”<ref name="MullaSadraMabda83"/>
# '''Ontology (Study of Existence)''': Due to the homogeneity of knowledge by presence with existence, this theory helps in proving the abstraction (immateriality) of the soul and in proving divine knowledge of material particulars.<ref>[[Mulla Sadra]], ''al-Mabda‘ wa al-Ma‘ad'', vol. 1, p. 105.</ref>
# '''Theology (Divine Knowledge)''': The most important application of knowledge by presence is explaining how God knows things, especially material particulars, without the need for mental forms and without change in the divine essence.<ref>[[Mulla Sadra]], ''Sharh Usul al-Kafi'', vol. 3, p. 124.</ref>

== History and Development ==

=== Background (Avicenna and the Peripatetics) ===
Avicenna clearly indicated in his works that human self-knowledge is of the type of “self-awareness” (''al-shu‘ur bi al-dhat''), and that in it, the soul is identical with itself: “'''Thus self-awareness is through a single power.'''”<ref name="AvicennaTalifat148"/> He also writes in ''al-Ta‘liqat'': “'''The Necessary Existence in His essence is intellect, intellector, and intelligible by His essence.'''”<ref>[[Avicenna]], ''al-Ta'liqat'', vol. 1, p. 190.</ref> However, the Peripatetics (followers of Avicenna) mainly accepted knowledge by presence only in the case of “the soul’s knowledge of itself” and sometimes “the cause’s knowledge of its effect,” and did not generalize it to other cases.<ref name="TabatabaiNihayah260">[[Allamah Tabatabai]], ''Nihayat al-Hikmah'', vol. 1, p. 260.</ref> [[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]] transmits the Peripatetic view in ''al-Mabahith al-Mashriqiyyah'': “'''The wise have agreed that the human being’s knowledge of himself is identical with his own self.'''”<ref>[[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]], ''al-Mabahith al-Mashriqiyyah'', vol. 1, p. 144.</ref>

=== Systematic Founding (Shaykh al-Ishraq) ===
[[Suhrawardi]], by criticizing the theory of “knowledge through mental forms” in explaining divine knowledge, founded the theory of “Illuminative Knowledge by Presence” (''al-‘ilm al-huduri al-ishraqi''). Based on the principle “'''Vision is nothing but the confrontation of the illuminated object with the seeing organ'''”<ref>[[Suhrawardi]], ''Sharh al-Hidayah al-Athiriyyah'' (quoted), vol. 1, p. 383.</ref>, he demonstrated that in cases such as vision, the soul perceives the external thing itself by knowledge by presence, not its form.<ref>[[Suhrawardi]], ''Sharh Hikmat al-Ishraq (Qutb)'', vol. 1, p. 39.</ref> He also considered the knowledge of the Necessary Existence (God) of things to be of the illuminative presential type, saying: “'''His knowledge is nothing but a pure illuminative relation with Him.'''”<ref>[[Suhrawardi]], ''al-Mabda‘ wa al-Ma‘ad (Mulla Sadra)'', vol. 1, p. 107.</ref>

### Completion in Transcendent Theosophy ===
[[Mulla Sadra]], accepting Suhrawardi’s principles, linked knowledge by presence to the principle of the “primacy of existence” (''asalat al-wujud''). For him, knowledge by presence is nothing but “a mode of existence,” and every abstract entity has presential knowledge of itself.<ref>[[Mulla Sadra]], ''Asrar al-Ayat'', vol. 1, p. 45.</ref> Mulla Sadra also advanced multiple proofs for the presential knowledge of the soul, its faculties, the body, and even the soul’s knowledge of its own faculties.<ref name="MullaSadraMabda81">[[Mulla Sadra]], ''al-Mabda‘ wa al-Ma‘ad'', vol. 1, p. 81.</ref> He writes in ''al-Hikmah al-Muta‘aliyah'': “'''Thus knowledge by presence is the most perfect of the two kinds of knowledge; indeed, true knowledge is nothing but it.'''”<ref name="MullaSadraMabda83"/>

=== Contemporary Era ===
[[Allamah Tabatabai]] in his book [[Nihayat al-Hikmah]] presented a clear and systematic exposition of knowledge by presence and its divisions, and emphasized that all acquired sciences ultimately terminate in knowledge by presence.<ref>[[Allamah Tabatabai]], ''Nihayat al-Hikmah'', vol. 1, p. 237.</ref> He writes in ''Bidayat al-Hikmah'': “'''The division of knowledge into two exhaustive divisions: either the presence of the known to the knower through its quiddity – which is acquired knowledge – or through its existence – which is knowledge by presence.'''”<ref>[[Allamah Tabatabai]], ''Bidayat al-Hikmah'', vol. 1, p. 139.</ref>

== Main Definitions and Expositions ==

=== Peripatetic Definition ===
“'''Knowledge is the presence of the quiddity of the intelligible thing before the intellect.'''”<ref>[[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]], ''al-Mabahith al-Mashriqiyyah'', vol. 2, p. 469.</ref> – From this perspective, knowledge by presence occurs only when the quiddity of the known is identical with the essence of the knower (as in the soul’s knowledge of itself). This definition was later criticized by Suhrawardi and Mulla Sadra.

=== Illuminationist Definition ===
“'''Knowledge and perception are not the presence of the image of the perceived thing in the perceiver, but rather a specific relation between the perceiver and the perceived.'''”<ref>[[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]] (quoting the Illuminationists), ''al-Mabahith al-Mashriqiyyah'', vol. 2, p. 470.</ref> In this view, knowledge by presence is realized through an “illuminative relation” (''al-idafah al-ishraqiyyah'') – a specific existential connection – between the knower and the known, and does not require a form superadded to the essence.<ref>[[Suhrawardi]], ''Sharh Hikmat al-Ishraq (Shahrazuri)'', vol. 1, p. 382.</ref>

=== Sadrian Definition ===
“'''Knowledge of a thing in truth is the presence of its essence before the knower, and it is the most perfect division of knowledge of the thing.'''”<ref>[[Mulla Sadra]], ''al-Hikmah al-Muta‘aliyah'', vol. 6, p. 163.</ref> Mulla Sadra equates knowledge by presence with the “existential presence” of the known to the knower, and considers it superior to acquired knowledge. He also divides knowledge in ''Mafatih al-Ghayb'' into three divisions: the attainment of the essential identity of the effect for the cause, the attainment of the identity of a thing for an independently existent entity by way of judgment, and the attainment of the form of quiddity for the knower.<ref>[[Mulla Sadra]], ''Mafatih al-Ghayb'', vol. 1, p. 108.</ref>

=== Allamah Tabatabai's Definition ===
“'''The presence of the known through its existence to the knower'''”<ref>[[Allamah Tabatabai]], ''Bidayat al-Hikmah'', vol. 1, p. 139.</ref>, which stands in contrast to “the presence of the known through its quiddity” (acquired knowledge).

== Divisions and Classifications ==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Criterion of Division !! Type of Presential Knowledge !! Example
|-
| Relation of knower to known || Knowledge of a thing of itself || The soul's knowledge of itself <ref name="AvicennaTalifat148"/>
|-
| Causality || Knowledge of the cause of its effect || The Necessary Existence's (God's) knowledge of its effects <ref name="TabatabaiBidayah154">[[Allamah Tabatabai]], ''Bidayat al-Hikmah'', vol. 1, p. 154.</ref>
|-
| Causality || Knowledge of the effect of its cause || The abstract soul's knowledge of its cause (the Active Intellect) <ref name="TabatabaiNihayah260"/>
|-
| Object known || Knowledge of existential matters || The human being's knowledge of his body and faculties <ref>[[Mulla Sadra]], ''al-Mabda‘ wa al-Ma‘ad'', vol. 1, p. 80.</ref>
|-
| Object known || Knowledge of non-existential matters (derivatively) || Knowledge of non-existence (through the presence of the opposing existential thing) <ref>[[Mulla Sadra]], ''al-Hikmah al-Muta‘aliyah'', vol. 9, p. 363.</ref>
|}

== Proofs and Arguments ==

=== Proof of the Impossibility of Two Like Things (The First Proof) ===
If human self-knowledge were acquired (through a mental form), then a form equal to his essence would have to occur in his soul, which entails the “coincidence of two like things” (''ijtima‘ al-mithlayn''). Therefore, human self-knowledge is presential.<ref>[[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]], ''al-Mabahith al-Mashriqiyyah'', vol. 1, p. 144.</ref> The same argument is expressed in another formulation: “'''We indeed perceive our own essences, and everyone who perceives an essence has the quiddity of that essence...'''” – if the mental form were superadded to the essence, it could not be an indication of the ‘I’ (personal selfhood).<ref>[[Mulla Sadra]], ''al-Mabda‘ wa al-Ma‘ad'', vol. 1, p. 288.</ref><ref>[[Suhrawardi]], ''Hikmat al-Ishraq (Mulla Sadra's gloss)'', vol. 4, p. 19.</ref>

=== The 'Arshi (Throne) Proof (Mulla Sadra) ===
The soul at the beginning of its primordial nature (''fitrah'') is devoid of all acquired knowledge; however, the use of instruments (the senses) requires knowledge of those instruments. If this knowledge were also acquired, it would entail an infinite regress (''tasalsul'') or a vicious circle (''dawr''). Therefore, the first knowledge of the soul is its knowledge of itself and then of its faculties, which is presential.<ref name="MullaSadraMabda81"/> Mulla Sadra counts this proof among the “throne-like” (''‘arshiyyah'') demonstrations.<ref>[[Mulla Sadra]], ''al-Hikmah al-Muta‘aliyah'', vol. 6, p. 161.</ref>

=== Proof of Causality (Allamah Tabatabai) ===
The existence of an effect is a relational existence (''wujud rabit'') relative to its cause, and it is present through its entire existence to its cause; therefore, the cause’s knowledge of its effect is presential (provided both are abstract).<ref name="TabatabaiNihayah260"/> He also writes in ''Bidayat al-Hikmah'': “'''And likewise the cause is present through its existence to its effect... so it is known to its effect by presential knowledge.'''”<ref name="TabatabaiBidayah154"/>

=== Proof of Abstraction (Shaykh al-Ishraq) ===
If the soul’s knowledge of its body and faculties were acquired and through a mental form, that form would be universal, whereas the body and the soul’s faculties are particular; likewise, the estimative faculty (''wahm'' – which is a particular power) cannot perceive itself, yet the soul knows its estimative faculty. Therefore, these items of knowledge are also presential.<ref>[[Suhrawardi]], ''Majmu‘ah Musannafat Shaykh al-Ishraq'', vol. 1, p. 484.</ref>

=== Proof of Pain ===
The human being experiences pain from the separation of continuity (''tafarruq al-ittisal'') in a limb, and this pain is identical to that separation of continuity, not a mental form of it. Therefore, knowledge of pain is of the presential type.<ref>[[Suhrawardi]], ''Majmu‘ah Musannafat Shaykh al-Ishraq'', vol. 1, p. 485.</ref><ref name="MullaSadraMabda81"/> Sadr al-Din al-Shirazi says in ''Sharh Usul al-Kafi'': “'''Pains... are nothing but the presential perception of the occurrence of a loss and the removal of a harmonious state.'''”<ref name="MullaSadraKafi407">[[Mulla Sadra]], ''Sharh Usul al-Kafi'', vol. 1, p. 407.</ref>

== Different Perspectives ==

=== Peripatetics (Mashsha’un) ===
They restricted knowledge by presence to “the soul’s knowledge of itself” and explained the Necessary Existence’s (God’s) knowledge of other things through mental forms.<ref name="TabatabaiBidayah154"/> [[Al-Farabi]] is among those who denied knowledge by presence except in the case of an abstract entity’s knowledge of itself.<ref>[[Mulla Sadra]], ''Majmu‘ah Rasail Falsafiyyah'', vol. 1, p. 129.</ref>

=== Illuminationists (Ishraqiyun) ===
They extended knowledge by presence to include: knowledge of a thing of itself, knowledge of the cause of its effect, knowledge of the effect of its cause (in the case of abstraction), and the soul’s knowledge of its body and faculties. In divine knowledge, they maintained that God has presential knowledge of all things.<ref>[[Suhrawardi]], ''Sharh Hikmat al-Ishraq (Shahrazuri)'', vol. 1, p. 382.</ref> Suhrawardi says in this regard: “'''The holy intellects and the celestial substances are equal in their presence before Him.'''”<ref>[[Suhrawardi]], ''al-Mabda‘ wa al-Ma‘ad (Mulla Sadra)'', vol. 1, p. 109.</ref>

=== Transcendent Theosophy (Hikmat Muta‘aliyah) ===
Accepting the Illuminationist viewpoint, they linked knowledge by presence to the primacy of existence and emphasized that in knowledge by presence, “'''the known in itself is the very external existent.'''”<ref>[[Mulla Sadra]], ''Hikmat al-Ishraq (Mulla Sadra's gloss)'', vol. 4, p. 9.</ref> They also hold that all acquired sciences ultimately return to presential sciences.<ref>[[Allamah Tabatabai]], ''Nihayat al-Hikmah'', vol. 1, p. 237.</ref>

== Objections and Criticisms ==

=== Objection Regarding the Necessary Existence's Knowledge of Changing Things ===
It is argued: if God’s knowledge of changing events is presential and identical with their existence, then with the change in the known object, divine knowledge would also have to change. The Illuminationists’ response: knowledge by presence is an “illuminative relation,” and a change in the relation does not entail a change in the subject to which the relation is attributed (the knower).<ref name="Qutb351">[[Suhrawardi]], ''Sharh Hikmat al-Ishraq (Qutb)'', vol. 1, p. 351.</ref> Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi says on this point: “'''A change in relations does not entail a change in the subject of those relations.'''”<ref name="Qutb351"/>

=== Objection Regarding Presential Knowledge of Material Things ===
Material things, due to the difference among their parts and their essential veiling, cannot be present in a presential manner to another existent.<ref>[[Allamah Tabatabai]], ''Bidayat al-Hikmah'', vol. 1, p. 165.</ref> Mulla Sadra responds that material things are present to the Necessary Existence (God) through their scientific and abstract existence, not through their material existence.<ref name="MullaSadraArshiyyah225">[[Mulla Sadra]], ''al-‘Arshiyyah'', vol. 1, p. 225.</ref> He writes in ''al-‘Arshiyyah'': “'''Do not listen to the one who says that these corporeal composites, although in their own confines they are corporeal and changing, yet in relation to what is above them... they are immutable and stable intelligibles.'''”<ref name="MullaSadraArshiyyah225"/>

=== Objection Regarding the Soul's Presential Knowledge of its Faculties ===
Critics have said: if the soul’s knowledge of its faculties were presential, we would never doubt the substantiality of the soul. The response: the soul’s presential knowledge of itself is knowledge of “personal identity” (the “I”), whereas concepts like “substance” are of the acquired and universal type of knowledge. Unawareness of these concepts is not incompatible with presential knowledge.<ref name="MullaSadraRasail128">[[Mulla Sadra]], ''Majmu‘ah Rasail Falsafiyyah'', vol. 1, p. 128.</ref> Sadr al-Din al-Shirazi says on this point: “'''It is established that the perception of the human being’s identity and the attainment of his essential self through presential disclosure is one thing, and the perception of his quiddity is another thing.'''”<ref name="MullaSadraRasail128"/>

== Philosophical Consequences and Results ==
# '''Proof of the Abstraction (Immateriality) of the Soul''': The argument from presential self-knowledge is one of the most important demonstrations for proving the immateriality of the soul in Islamic philosophy.<ref>[[Mulla Sadra]], ''Majmu‘ah Rasail Falsafiyyah'', vol. 1, p. 126.</ref>
# '''Explaining Divine Knowledge of Particulars''': The theory of knowledge by presence provides a solution to the age-old problem of “God’s knowledge of material particulars” without falling into change or requiring mental forms.<ref>[[Mulla Sadra]], ''Sharh Usul al-Kafi'', vol. 3, p. 124.</ref>
# '''Refutation of Skepticism''': Through knowledge by presence, the human being can prove the external reality of his own existence and of some of his internal states (such as pain and pleasure), thereby invalidating skepticism.<ref>[[Allamah Tabatabai]], ''Nihayat al-Hikmah'', vol. 1, p. 4.</ref>
# '''Union of the Intellect and the Intelligible''': In some types of knowledge by presence (such as the soul’s knowledge of itself or the intellect’s knowledge of its own quiddity), the union of knower and known is realized.<ref name="AvicennaTalifat148"/>
# '''Explaining Knowledge of Pains and Pleasures''': Knowledge by presence offers a precise explanation of knowledge of non-existential matters (such as the pain resulting from the separation of continuity).<ref name="MullaSadraKafi407"/>

== Related Concepts ==
* [[Acquired knowledge (al-‘ilm al-husuli)]]
* [[Union of the intellect and the intelligible]]
* [[Abstraction (immateriality) of the soul]]
* [[Divine knowledge]]
* [[Relational being (wujud rabit)]]
* [[Illuminative relation (idafah ishraqiyyah)]]
* [[Self-awareness (al-shu‘ur bi al-dhat)]]

== Comparative Table of Perspectives ==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! School !! Scope of Presential Knowledge !! In Divine Knowledge !! In the Soul’s Self-Knowledge
|-
| Peripatetics || Limited (a thing’s knowledge of itself) || Acquired through forms || Presential<ref name="TabatabaiBidayah154"/>
|-
| Illuminationists || Extensive (self, cause, effect, soul of body) || Illuminative presential || Presential<ref>[[Suhrawardi]], ''Sharh Hikmat al-Ishraq (Shahrazuri)'', vol. 1, p. 382.</ref>
|-
| Transcendent Theosophy || Very extensive (all abstract beings and even material things through their scientific existence) || Presential and identical with existence || Presential (personal identity)<ref>[[Mulla Sadra]], ''al-Mabda‘ wa al-Ma‘ad'', vol. 1, p. 83 and p. 107.</ref>
|}

== Key Sources and References (Thinkers, Books, Theories) ==

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Most Important Sources and Scholars
|-
! Scholar / School !! Key Work or Book !! Main Theory or View Regarding Knowledge by Presence
|-
| '''Aristotle (the First Teacher)''' || ''Theologia'' (attributed), ''De Anima'' (as quoted by others) || Reference to the presence of things in the intelligible world; God’s knowledge of things as presence and vision; the statement that “a thing is not hidden from itself”<ref>Majmu‘ah Musannafat Shaykh al-Ishraq, vol. 1, p. 72</ref>
|-
| '''Avicenna (Shaykh al-Ra’is)''' || ''al-Ta‘liqat'', ''al-Mubahathat'', ''al-Shifa'' (Metaphysics) || Affirmation of the soul’s presential knowledge of itself; proving the immateriality of the soul through presential knowledge; hesitation in explaining divine knowledge; definition of intellection as “the presence of the quiddity of the intelligible before the intellect”<ref>al-Mabahith al-Mashriqiyyah, vol. 2, p. 469</ref>
|-
| '''Fakhr al-Din al-Razi''' || ''al-Mabahith al-Mashriqiyyah'' || Raising objections to the Necessary Existence’s presential knowledge of Himself; refuting his own objections by “our knowledge of ourselves”<ref>al-Mabahith al-Mashriqiyyah, vol. 2, pp. 469-470</ref>
|-
| '''Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi (Shaykh al-Ishraq)''' || ''Hikmat al-Ishraq'', ''Majmu‘ah Musannafat Shaykh al-Ishraq'' (''al-Mashari‘ wa al-Mutarahat'') || Extension of knowledge by presence to the soul’s knowledge of itself, its faculties, and its body; God’s knowledge of things as the manifestation of essences; vision as the soul’s presential knowledge of visible objects; definition of knowledge as “the non-absence of a thing from the abstract essence”<ref>Majmu‘ah Musannafat Shaykh al-Ishraq, vol. 1, p. 487</ref>
|-
| '''Nasir al-Din al-Tusi''' || ''Sharh al-Isharat wa al-Tanbihat'' || A view close to the Illuminationists regarding the intellect’s presential knowledge of its essential effects; the lack of need for the intellect to have a form in perceiving itself and its essential effects<ref>Sharh al-Isharat wa al-Tanbihat li al-Tusi (with al-Muhakamat), vol. 3, p. 305</ref>
|-
| '''Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi''' || ''Sharh Hikmat al-Ishraq'' || Exposition of the Illuminationist theory of knowledge by presence; interpretation of vision as the soul’s illuminative presence to visible objects<ref>Sharh Hikmat al-Ishraq (Qutb), vol. 1, p. 454</ref>
|-
| '''Shahrazuri''' || ''Sharh Hikmat al-Ishraq'' || Exposition and development of the Illuminationist theory; interpretation of the Necessary Existence’s (God’s) knowledge of things as illuminative presence<ref>Sharh Hikmat al-Ishraq (Shahrazuri), vol. 1, p. 382</ref>
|-
| '''Mir Damad''' || ''al-Qabasat'' || Reference to presential sciences such as the rational soul’s knowledge of its own abstract essence; the perfect presential knowledge of the Necessary Existence not being characterized by generality and specificity<ref>al-Qabasat, vol. 1, pp. 387, 418</ref>
|-
| '''Mirk al-Bukhari''' || ''Hikmat al-‘Ayn wa Sharhuhu'' || Naming the knowledge that does not require a form as “knowledge by presence”; discussion of the soul’s emptiness of acquired knowledge at the beginning of its fitrah, not of presential knowledge<ref>Hikmat al-‘Ayn wa Sharhuhu, vol. 1, p. 309</ref>
|-
| '''Sadr al-Din al-Shirazi (Mulla Sadra)''' || ''al-Hikmah al-Muta‘aliyah fi al-Asfar al-‘Aqliyyah al-Arba‘ah'', ''al-Mabda‘ wa al-Ma‘ad'', ''Sharh Usul al-Kafi'', ''Tafsir al-Qur’an al-Karim'', ''Hikmat al-Ishraq'' (his gloss), ''Majmu‘ah Rasail Falsafiyyah'', ''Asrar al-Ayat'', ''al-Shawahid al-Rububiyyah'', ''al-‘Arshiyyah'', ''Mafatih al-Ghayb'' || The most comprehensive theory of knowledge by presence; definition “the presence of things through their existences to the knower, not through their quiddities”<ref>Nihayat al-Hikmah, vol. 1, p. 237</ref>; knowledge by presence as “the most perfect of the two kinds of knowledge” and true knowledge<ref>al-Mabda‘ wa al-Ma‘ad, vol. 1, p. 83</ref>; the flow of knowledge by presence through all levels of existence (soul, intellect, God, cause of effect); the reduction of acquired sciences to knowledge by presence
|-
| '''‘Allamah Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Tabataba’i''' || ''Nihayat al-Hikmah'', ''Bidayat al-Hikmah'' || The final exposition of the Sadrian theory; the division of knowledge into acquired and presential as an exhaustive division<ref>Bidayat al-Hikmah, vol. 1, p. 139</ref>; proving the presential knowledge of the abstract cause for its abstract effect and vice versa<ref name="TabatabaiNihayah260"/>; the reduction of acquired sciences to knowledge by presence
|-
| '''Hasan Zadeh Amoli''' || ''Ta‘liqat ‘ala Sharh al-Manzumah'' || Exposition and glosses on the discussions of knowledge by presence in Transcendent Theosophy; reference to the intuitive knowledge of the existence of the Whole as a luminous reality<ref>Sharh al-Manzumah (Ta‘liqat Hasan Zadeh), vol. 5, p. 298</ref>
|-
| '''The Peripatetic School''' || - || They restrict knowledge by presence to a thing’s knowledge of itself; they interpret God’s knowledge of other things as acquired (through quidditative forms)<ref>Nihayat al-Hikmah, vol. 1, pp. 260, 291</ref>
|-
| '''The Illuminationist School''' || - || They consider knowledge by presence to

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Ibn al-Jawzi, ʿAbd al-Rahman ibn ʿAli

Ibn al-Jawzi, Abu al-Faraj Jamal al-Din ʿAbd al-Rahman ibnʿAli ibn Muhammad ibnʿAli ibn ʿAbdullah ibn Humadi ibn Muhammad ibn Jaʿfar al-Jawzi al-Qurashi al-Taymi al-Bakri al-Baghdadi (circa 511-597 AH / 1117-1201 CE), was a historian, preacher, exegete, and Hanbali jurist.

==Lineage and Renown==
ʿAbd al-Rahman’s lineage traces back to Muhammad, the son of Abu Bakr, the first Caliph. He earned the name “Ibn al-Jawzi” due to his ancestor’s connection to Furdat al-Jawza (the Jawza landing site) in Basra or the Jawz district in western Baghdad. Some narrators have referred to him as “al-Saffar” (the coppersmith) due to his family’s involvement in the copper trade.

==Birth==
ʿAbd al-Rahman was born in the Darb al-Habib (or Bab al-Habib) district of Baghdad (Ibn Rajab, vol. 1, p. 400). His birth year has been recorded during the years 508-512 AH / 1114-1118 CE.

Ibn Rajab provides two accounts from Ibn al-Jawzi himself regarding his birth year: one stating that “the exact year of my birth is unknown, but I know that in 514 AH, when my father passed away, I was approximately three years old”; and another stating, “I reached puberty in the year my teacher, Ibn Zaghouni, died (527 AH).” This suggests his birth occurred in either 511 or 512 AH.

==Appearance and Character==
Ibn al-Jawzi was described as handsome and charming, with a soft voice and graceful movements. It is noted that his beard fell out and became very short due to his consumption of baladhur (a medicinal substance), and he dyed it until his death. Based on his childhood experiences, he believed that poor diet would lead to weakness and illness, hindering worship and good deeds. Therefore, he was very mindful of his health and consumed what he thought would benefit his intellect and sharpen his mind. He enjoyed good food, primarily eating chicken and light dishes, and he preferred syrups and concoctions over fruit. He avoided dubious foods and always wore the finest clothes. Passionate about books and reading, he felt as if he had discovered a treasure whenever he found a book he had not seen before. He had a refined taste and had experienced the sweetness of supplication. He fasted during the day and engaged in worship at night, often visiting pious individuals in the darkness of night.

His humor was gentle and sweet. He was quick-witted and had a ready response for any situation. For instance, when a man asked him whether glorifying God or seeking forgiveness was better, he replied, “A soiled garment needs soap more than perfume.” When asked about ghinaʾ (singing), he responded, “I swear by God, it is mere diversion.”

==His Children==
Ibn al-Jawzi had three sons named Abu Bakr ʿAbd al-ʿAziz, Abu al-Qasim ʿAli, and Abu Muhammad Yusuf, and six daughters named Rabiʿa (the mother of Yusuf ibn Qiz-ughli, known as Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi), Sharaf al-Nisaʾ, Zaynab, Jawhara, Sitt al-ʿUlamaʾ al-Kubra, and Sitt al-ʿUlama al-Sughra. All his daughters heard hadiths from their father and others.

==His Education and Teachers==
Ibn al-Jawzi spent his childhood in comfort, righteousness, and modesty under the care of his mother and paternal aunt. He did not mix with others or play with children. He mentioned that his mother did not pay much attention to him. His aunt entrusted his education to his maternal uncle, Abu al-Fadl Muhammad ibn Naser al-Baghdadi. In his work al-Muntazam, he writes that Abu al-Fadl took on the responsibility of teaching him hadith, and he listened to and memorized Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal and other important primary texts under his uncle's guidance. In [his] al-Mashikha, he mentions that his teacher, Ibn al-Naser, would take him to various shaykhs during his childhood, exposing him to hadiths with high isnads (chains of transmission) and writing down all his hearings in his own handwriting, obtaining authorizations for him from those scholars. Once he grasped the true meaning of seeking knowledge, he chose the most knowledgeable and insightful teachers to study with, valuing their expertise over their numbers.

==Early Learning and Passion for Knowledge==
Ibn al-Jawzi’s first recorded learning experience occurred at the age of five (516 AH). In his work Sayd al-Khatir, he writes,

“From childhood, I was passionate about knowledge, so I pursued it diligently. I developed an interest in mastering every branch of knowledge and aimed to perfect my understanding in each field.”

He adds, “Enduring hardships in the pursuit of knowledge was sweeter to my soul than honey. As a child, I would take a few pieces of dry bread and go out to learn hadith. I would sit by the ʿIsa river (Nahr ʿIsa), unable to eat the bread without water. So, I would take a bite of bread, drink a sip of water, and see nothing but the pleasure of acquiring knowledge before me.”

He was an avid reader and wrote, “I never tire of studying. I have seen the catalog of books donated to the Nizamiyya School, which contains over 6,000 volumes. I have also seen the catalogs of books owned by Abu Hanifa, Hamidi (Humaydi?), Shaykh ʿAbd al-Wahhab ibn al-Naser, and Abu Muhammad ibn al-Khashshab, each amounting to several loads on a beast of burden. I have studied over 20,000 volumes and am still eager to learn.”

Ibn al-Jawzi’s accounts in his al-Mashikha and Wafiyat al-Muntazam about his teachers and masters provide a clear picture of his education. Based on the dates of his teachers’ deaths, it is evident that during his childhood and adolescence, he attended the classes of many eminent scholars of his time, receiving both written and oral permissions (and authorizations) in various contemporary sciences.

==His Most Renowned Teachers==
1. Abu al-Fadl Muhammad ibn al-Naser ibn ʿAli ibn ʿUmar al-Baghdadi (467-550 AH / 1075-1155 CE), known as Salami, was a hafiz (memorizer of hadith) and a literary man. He provided Ibn al-Jawzi with his initial education and guided him in both scholarly and ethical matters.

2. Abu al-Qasim ʿAli ibn Yaʿla al-ʿAlawi al-Harawi, Ibn al-Jawzi’s first oratory teacher, encouraged him to ascend the pulpit for the first time at the age of nine.

3. Abu al-Saʿadat Ahmad ibn Ahmad... ibn al-Mutawakkil (d. 521/1127), taught him hadith and granted him a handwritten ijazah (license, authorization), tracing his scholarly lineage back to al-Mansur al-Dawaniqi (the second Abbasid Caliph).

4. Fatima bint al-Husayn ibn al-Hasan ibn Fadlawayh al-Razi (or bint Muhammad ibn al-Husayn ibn Fadlawayh al-Razi), with whom Ibn al-Jawzi read the book Dhamm al-Ghiba (blaming the backbiting) by Ibrahim al-Harbi under the guidance of his teacher, Abu al-Fadl Muhammad ibn al-Naser. He also learned various other texts, including Amali ibn Samʿun (known also as Majalis) and “Musnad al-Shafiʿi,” from her. Fatima was a devout preacher who taught women in her ribat (spiritual retreat; caravanserai). She passed away in 521 AH, when Ibn al-Jawzi was ten years old.

5. Abu ʿAbdullah Husayn ibn Muhammad ibn ʿAbd ul-Wahhab (d. 524 AH / 1130 CE), a renowned grammarian, lexicographer, and poet known as al-Bariʿ. He taught Ibn al-Jawzi hadith and granted him a written license (authorization).

6. Abu Nasr Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn ʿAbd ul-Qahir al-Tusi (d. 525 AH), who also taught him hadith and authorized him to transmit all his narrations.

7. Abu al-Qasim Hibatullah ibn Muhammad al-Shaybani al-Katib (d. 525 AH), from whom Ibn al-Jawzi learned the entire Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Kitab al-Fawaʾid, also known as al-Ghilaniyyat (by Muhammad al-Shafiʿi), and Ajzaʾ al-Muzakka. Ibn al-Jawzi mentions that he learned and transcribed these works under the supervision of his teacher, Abu al-Fadl Muhammad ibn al-Naser.

8. Abu al-ʿIzz Ahmad ibn ʿUbaydullah, known as Ibn Kadish (d. 526/1131), who permitted Ibn al-Jawzi to narrate everything he had learned from him.

9. Abu al-Hasan ʿAli ibn ʿUbaydullah al-Zaghuni (d. 527/1132), a traditionist, grammarian, lexicoloist, jurist, and preacher. Ibn al-Jawzi accompanied him and learned hadith, jurisprudence, and preaching from him.

10. Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn ʿAbdullah al-ʿAmiri (d. 530/1136), known as Ibn Janazah, a traditionist, jurist, and Sufi preacher. He taught Ibn al-Jawzi hadith and exegesis.

11. Abu al-Qasim Nasr ibn Husayn al-Muqri, known as Ibn Habar (d. 531/1137), from whom Ibn al-Jawzi learned the various [variant] readings (qiraʾaat) of the Qur’an.

12. Abu Bakr Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Dinawari (d. 532/1138), a jurist, traditionist, and master debater, whose lessons Ibn al-Jawzi attended for a period.

13. Abu Saʿd Ismaʿil ibn Ahmad al-Muʾadhdhin al-Nishaburi (d. 532/1138), a prominent jurist who granted Ibn al-Jawzi written permission to transmit all his narrations.

14. Abu al-Muzaffar ʿAbd ul-Munʿim ibn ʿAbd ul-Karim ibn Hawazin al-Qushayri (d. 532/1138), who also authorized him to narrate hadith.

15. Abu al-Qasim Zahir ibn Tahir al-Shahhami (d. 533/1139), granted Ibn al-Jawzi permission to narrate hadith.

16. Shafiʿ ibn ʿAbd ul-Rashid al-Jili (d. 541 /1146), whose study circles Ibn al-Jawzi attended in his childhood to acquire knowledge.

==His Teachers for Hadith Transmission==
1. Abu Bakr Wajih ibn Tahir al-Nishaburi.

2. Abu Shujaʿ ʿUmar ibn Abi al-Hasan al-Bastami (d. 542/1147), who taught him the book “Shamaʾil al-Nabi” by Abu ʿIsa al-Tirmidhi, among others.

3. Abu al-Fath ʿAbd ul-Malik ibn Abi al-Qasim ʿAbdullah ibn Abi Sahl al-Kurukhi (d. 548/1153), from whom Ibn al-Jawzi learned the “Jamiʿ al-Tirmidhi,” the “Manaqib Ahmad ibn Hanbal,” and other works.

4. Abu Is-haq Abu al-Waqt ʿAbd ul-Awwal ibn ʿIsa al-Sijzi al-Harawi (d. 553/1158), a hadith teacher at the Nizamiyya of Baghdad, who narrated “Sahih al-Bukhari” according to the Dawudi transmission, as well as “Musnad al-Darimi” and the Compendium of “Musnad of ʿAbd ibn Humayd” to Ibn al-Jawzi.

5. Abu Hakim Ibrahim ibn Dinar al-Nahrawani (d. 556 / 1161), an expert in jurisprudence (madhhab), disputes (khilaf), and inheritance laws, who taught at the Ibn Shamhal and Bab al-Azj madrasas. Ibn al-Jawzi states, “I learned the Qur’an, jurisprudence, and inheritance laws from him and served as his assistant at the Ibn Shamhal Madrasa (seminary school) for a period. After his passing, the madrasa was entrusted to me, and I taught there.”

6. Abu al-Barakat Saʿdullah ibn Muhammad ibn ʿAli ibn Ahmadi (d. 557/1162), from whom Ibn al-Jawzi learned the book “al-Sunnah” by al-Lalakaʾi through the transmission of al-Turaythiʾi.

7. Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Baqi al-Ansari.

8. Abu al-Qasim Ismaʿil ibn Ahmad al-Samarqandi.

9. Abu Nasr Ahmad ibn Mansur ibn Ahmad, a Sufi from Hamadan (Hamdan?).

10. Hafiz Abu al-Barakat ʿAbd al-Wahhab ibn Mubarak al-Anmati.

11. Abu al-Maʿali ʿAbd al-Khaliq ibn Ahmad ibn ʿAbd al-Samad al-Shaybani, known as Ibn al-Badan.

12. Abu al-Hasan Muhammad ibn Ahmad, known as Ibn Surma.

13. Abu Mansur Muhammad ibn ʿAbd a-Malik ibn Hasan ibn Ibrahim ibn Khayrun al-Muqri, the last to receive permission to narrate from al-Jawhari, the author of “al-Sihah”.

14. Abu Saʿd Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Baghdadi al-Isfahani.

15. Abu Mansur Mawhub ibn Ahmad al-Jawaliqi (d. 540 AH), a literature teacher at the Nizamiyya of Baghdad. Ibn al-Jawzi studied hadith, “Gharib al-Hadith,” literature, and lexicology under him, and read “Kitāb al-Muʿarrab, (lit. ‘Explanation of foreign vocabularies, or loan words used in Arabic’)” and other works authored by him.

Throughout his works, especially in “al-Muntazam” and its Wafayaat (obituaries, or death accounts) Section (volumes 9 and 10), Ibn al-Jawzi mentions over 70 teachers, and in “al-Mashikha” he lists 89 teachers (pages 197-202), many of whom granted him permission to narrate hadith.

==Circumstances of the Era of Ibn al-Jawzi==
Ibn al-Jawzi’s lifetime coincided with the reigns of six Abbasid caliphs:

1. Al-Mustarshid (512-529 AH / 1118-1135 CE),

2. Al-Rashid (529-530 AH),

3. Al-Muqtafi (530-555 AH),

4. Al-Mustanjid (555-566 AH),

5. Al-Mustadiʾ (566-575 AH),

6. Al-Nasir (575-622 AH).

During this period, Baghdad, like other cities and many other eras, was tumultuous, marked by fanatical sectarian conflicts among various theological and jurisprudential factions. These confrontations manifested in numerous forms, such as debates, disputes, and severe contentions. The dynamics of these conflicts often changed with the transition of power from one caliph to another, the appointment or dismissal of a vizier, or the rise of an emir. Occasionally, a particular faction or group would gain dominance over others. At times, scholars with exceptional rhetorical skills or significant scientific or religious authority could sway a caliph or vizier towards their own sect. This often led to the dominance of their faction, the flourishing of their school of thought, and the marginalization or isolation of their opponents.

Ibn al-Jawzi portrays his era in his “Sayd al-Khāṭir” as follows:

“Steer clear of this age and its people, for goodness and altruism have vanished. No one concerns themselves with the welfare of others, and no one rises to aid the needy without some form of exploitation or as part of a vow.”

In another passage, he writes that for fear of dismissal most statesmen yielded to the execution of oppressive commands of the rulers. He has observed many who spared no expense to become a judge or bear witness (in a court), whose motives had been driven by ambition. Sometimes, in exchange for meager sums of money or under duress from the powerful, they bear false witness to things they have no knowledge of.

Regarding educational institutions, he remarks that establishing schools in our era is fraught with danger, as many people who claim they are jurists prefer to engage in scholarly debates rather than study religious sciences, avoiding mosques and making themselves content with mere titles and settling at schools.

He also writes about caravanserais and monasteries, stating they are devoid of any benefit. Sufis spread ignorance and self-indulgence there, their claims of love and devotion being false, neglecting to engage in true religious learning like the ways of Sufis such as Sirri [Saqati] (d. 251/865) and Junayd [Baghdadi] (d. 297/909).

In “Sayd al-Khāṭir”, Ibn al-Jawzi describes his era as a time of hypocrisy, fame-seeking, deceit of the masses, and nurturing of (submissive) disciples. He writes:

“We see people dressed in the garments of the pious, indulging in the finest foods, befriending the wealthy, avoiding the poor, never moving without their guards and servants, displaying arrogance towards people, deriving pleasure from being recognized by the elite, and squandering their lives in vain pursuits. Most rulers amass wealth through improper means and spend extravagantly on unworthy causes, as if this wealth were not bestowed by God but was their own. Scholars, either due to poverty or out of fear for their reputation and lives, oftenʿAlign themselves with such individuals.”

A thought-provoking aspect of Ibn al-Jawzi’s era (6th century AH / 12th century CE) is the relative silence of the Abbasid caliphate and Baghdad's elites in the face of one of the greatest events in world history—the Crusades (490-690 AH / 1094-1291 CE). These conflicts between Muslims and Christians, or more broadly East and West, spanned nearly 200 years. Ibn al-Jawzi, as a Muslim scholar and historian of his time, witnessed and documented two phases of these wars.

During the Crusader invasions, which involved the occupation of large parts of al-Shaam (Syria) and the establishment of Latin principalities in cities like al-Quds, Antioch, Tripoli, and Edessa (Urfa), Muslims reacted under the leadership of notable figures such as ʿImad ad-Din Zangi, Nur ad-Din Zangi, and later Saladin (Salah ad-Din Ayyubi). They successfully recaptured al-Quds and other key cities, largely independently and without direct coordination with the Abbasid caliphate seat.

The Abbasid caliphs were ineffective, while emirs, ambitious ministers, and unaware scholars in Baghdad were preoccupied with political games, personal power struggles, theological disputes, and denominational conflicts. This distracted them from taking any decisive action to rally Muslims and mobilize forces against the Crusaders. Even appeals from war-torn regions in Syria to Baghdad for assistance often went unanswered.

In Ibn al-Jawzi’s works, as expected, we find little indication of his concern or empathy regarding these major conflicts, even in his most comprehensive historical work, “al-Muntazam”. Aside from brief mentions in the annual chronicles of events, there is scant attention given to these significant confrontations.

==His Social and Cultural Life==
It can be said that Ibn al-Jawzi's social and cultural life begins with his earliest sermons, which laid the foundation for his subsequent fame that persisted throughout his life and reflected in his own works and those of others.

==His Sermons and Oratory==
The first time he ascended the pulpit was in 520 /1126, when he was just a nine-year-old child. He recalls being taken to Abu al-QasimʿAli ibn Yaʿli al-Harawi, who taught him the art of preaching and dressed him in a robe. Subsequently, when he sat in a caravanserai near the city ramparts of Baghdad to bid farewell to the people, he was sent to the pulpit. There, in front of a congregation of nearly 50,000 people, he delivered what he had learned from his teacher.

During Ibn Hubayra's viziership (544-560/1149-64), Ibn al-Jawzi gained prominence through his weekly speeches on Fridays held at the vizier's residence. The main themes of his sermons included strengthening the caliphate, staunch defense of Sunnah, refutation of innovation and opposition to its adherents, praise of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal and his followers, and condemnation of their opponents. Caliphs, viziers, scholars, and dignitaries participated in Ibn al-Jawzi’s sermons, some of which he mentions in “al-Muntazam”. For instance, he writes about a three-day mourning assembly held at Bayt al-Nubah after the death of al-Muqtafi and the beginning of al-Mustanjid's caliphate (Rabi’ I, 555/March 1160)), where he delivered a speech. At the end of the mourning period for his father, al-Mustanjid bestowed robes of honor upon Ibn al-Jawzi and allowed him to speak in the grand mosque of the palace. From the 28th of Rabi’ II (7 May 1160 CE), he regularly delivered sermons in this mosque, with an attendance ranging from 10,000 to 15,000 people.

During the caliphate of al-Mustadi’ (566-575/1171-9 CE), Ibn al-Jawzi reached the peak of his fame, being recognized as the foremost preacher of the Hanbali school. On the 21st of Jumada I, 574 AH (4 November 1178 CE), the caliph ordered the construction of a platform in the grand mosque of the palace for Shaykh Abu al-Fath ibn Munir, a prominent Hanbali jurist, to sit and deliver sermons. Later that year, in Jumada II, the caliph also ordered the reconstruction of the grave of Ahmad ibn Hanbal. These actions, which were unprecedented for the Hanbalis and were done at the behest of the caliph, deeply troubled adherents of other schools of thought. Ibn al-Jawzi recounts that people would say to him, “The caliph’s inclination towards the Hanbalis is because of you and the influence of your teachings...” To this, Ibn al-Jawzi expresses gratitude to God.

In the year 527/1132, Ibn al-Jawzi’s mentor and teacher, Abu al-Hasan ibn Zaghuni, who conducted lessons, sermons, and debates in the Grand Mosque of Mansur near the famous tomb, as well as in the Mosque of Ibn Faʿus, passed away. AbuʿAli ibn Radhani took his place in these gatherings, but due to Ibn al-Jawzi’s youth, AbuʿAli hesitated to entrust him with this responsibility. Therefore, Ibn al-Jawzi approached Anushirwan, the vizier, and delivered a sermon, earning permission to speak at the Grand Mosque of Mansur. Ibn al-Jawzi himself recounts:

“On the first day of my lecture, all the great jurists of our school, such as ʿAbd ul-Wahid ibn Shanif, AbuʿAli ibn al-Qadi, Abu Bakr ibn ʿIsa, and Ibn Qasami, were present. Subsequently, I spoke at the mosque near the famous tomb, Bab al-Basrah, and the Muʿalla River. These sessions continued and were well-received.

Ibn Jubayr, in his observations from Baghdad in 580/1184, provides an exaggerated praise of Ibn al-Jawzi’s scholarly, literary, and religious stature in his report “Majalis al-ʿIlm wa al-Waʿz (lit. Knowledge and preaching sessions).” He vividly portrays one of Ibn al-Jawzi’s preaching sessions:

“In the early morning of Saturday, at the gathering of the learned scholar... Ibn al-Jawzi, who stood in front of his residence on the eastern bank of the Tigris River, I attended. After his seating on the pulpit and before commencing his sermon, over twenty reciters recited verses from the Holy Qur’an in harmony and with a particular order. Then he embarked upon his sermon, beginning each section with the verses recited, and ending each section with concluding verses as if they were rhymed poetry, while maintaining the sequence of the verses... His words enchanted hearts and elevated spirits to the extent that cries of repentance and pleas for (divine) help rose, and sinners cried out for forgiveness like moths drawn to a candle flame, falling at his feet... Some were beside themselves with awe... Then the discussion of issues began, and from all sides of the gathering, sheets of questions flowed towards him. He promptly responded to them, and the greatest benefit of his gatherings lay in these answers to questions.”

Ibn Jubayr reports on two other gatherings of Ibn al-Jawzi in the same year: one on the early morning of Friday, 11th of Safar (24 May, 1184), in the courtyard of the Caliph’s palace known as Bab Badr, and the other on Saturday, 13th of Safar (26 May), at the same location. Regarding the first gathering, he mentions that besides the general public, the Caliph and his mother, along with others from his household, were present.

Ibn al-Jawzi frequently refers in “al-Muntazam” to his gatherings and the reception they received from the people. For instance, he writes: “By the Caliph’s command, on Friday, 5th of Rajab, 570 (30 January 1175), a gathering was held after the ʿAsr Pprayer at Bab Badr. People began reserving seats from the Fajr Prayer, each row accommodating 18 individuals at a fee of 18 carats. Eventually, it reached a point where some were willing to pay 6 carats extra to sit beside those 18 individuals.” In another passage, he recounts: “On the day of Ashura, 571 AH (31 July, 1175 CE), by the Caliph’s order, a gathering was organized in his presence. People started gathering at Bab Badr from midnight to hear my words. The crowd was excessive, causing the doors to be closed. Countless groups continuously made their way to this place.” In a different account, he notes: “On 11th of Ramadan, 572 AH (13 March 1177 CE), I delivered a sermon at the residence of Zahir al-Din Sahib al-Makhzan. The Caliph was present, and entry was permitted for the general public. I spoke in such a manner that everyone was amazed, to the extent that Zahir al-Din remarked to me that the Caliph had said about me, 'This man speaks as if he is not from among humans.'”

In many instances, Ibn al-Jawzi refers to other gatherings where the Caliph, viziers, statesmen, scholars, jurists, elders, and various classes of people participated. It is said that the number of attendees at these gatherings sometimes reached 100,000 individuals. During these gatherings, a considerable number of people would repent due to admonition, and some would even pull their hair out in remorse. Ibn al-Jawzi himself claims that more than 100,000 individuals repented at his hands, and over 100,000 people embraced Islam through his efforts. However, his grandson (Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi) writes that one thousand Jews and Christians converted to Islam through him. It is noted that during his illness, al-Mustadiʾ continuously attended his preaching sessions.

One of Ibn al-Jawzi’s unprecedented accomplishments was delivering a complete commentary (Tafsir) of the Qur’an from the pulpit. He states, “On the 17th of Jumada I, 570 AH (16 October 1174 CE), I completed the Tafsir of the Qur’an from the pulpit. Then I prostrated in gratitude and said, 'Since the revelation of the Qur’an until now, I do not know of anyone who has interpreted the entire Qur’an in preaching sessions.'”

In the gatherings where the Caliph was present, Ibn al-Jawzi directed his preaching towards him. As he mentions in “al-Muntazam,” he addressed the Caliph during a sermon, saying, “O Commander of the Faithful! If I speak about you, I fear you, and if I remain silent, I fear you as well. However, due to my love for you, I prefer fear for you over fear for myself.”

==His Teaching and Pupils==
In addition to sermon and preaching, the teaching would occupy an important part of Ibn Jawzi’s time of social life. He was a great mentor and a powerful teacher, and as he himself states, he has been teaching in five madrasas (seminary schools), however, only four schools – as mentioned below - have been referred to in the sources:
#Ibn Shamhul: Ibn Shamhul established this school in Ma'muniyya, and Ibn al-Jawzi taught there for a while under the supervision of Abu Hakim al-Nahrawani. Later, this school was entrusted to him, and he began teaching there.
# %Benfeshah: This school was indeed the house of Nazam al-Din Abu Nasr ibn Juhayr. Benfeshah purchased it and established it as a school, entrusting it to Abu Jaʿfar al-Sabbagh. The management of the school was under his control for some time. Later, without being requested, Ibn al-Jawzi was entrusted to him. According to Ibn al-Jawzi, this school was endowed for the followers of Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Ibn al-Jawzi began his lessons in this school on 25 Sha’ban 570 AH (21 March 1170 CE), attended by the Supreme Judge, the (Royal Court) Chamberlain, and the jurists of Baghdad.
# Shaykh ʿAbd ul-Qadir: This school was under the supervision of ʿAbd al-Salam ibn ʿAbd ul-Wahhab ibn ʿAbd ul-Qadir Jili until the tenure of Ibn Yunus al-Hanbali (in 583-4 /1187-8). In that year, after accusing him and burning his books, they also removed his ancestor’s school from him and entrusted it to Ibn al-Jawzi.
# Darb Dinar: Ibn al-Jawzi established this school at Darb Dinar (a neighborhood in Baghdad) and endowed his own books to it. He himself says: “I started work in this school on 3 Muharram 570 AH (4 August 1174 CE) and on that day, I taught 14 subjects in various scientific disciplines.”

A large group benefited from Ibn al-Jawzi in various scientific disciplines and many read books from him, including Tahlah al-ʿUlthi, Abu ʿAbdullah ibn Taymiyyah, (known as) the orator of the city of Harran (in Syria), who read his book “Zad al-Masir (fi ʿIlm al-Tafseer)” in interpretation of the Qur’an at his presence. A countless number of imams, memorizers, jurists, and others heard hadiths from him and read out his works before him.

Some have narrated from him, among them are: his son, the father of Allameh Muhyi al-Din Yusuf, the teacher of Dar al-Mustaʿsim; his other son,ʿAli Nasikh; his grandson, Abu al-Muzaffar Shams al-Din Yusuf bin Qazawghli (known as Sabt Ibn al-Jawzi); Shaykh Muwaffaq al-Din Ibn Qudamah; Hafiz ʿAbd ul-Ghani; Ibn Dabithi; Ibn Qatiʿi; Ibn Najjar; Diya; Yaldani; Ibn Khalil; Ibn ʿAbd ul-Da'im; and Najib ʿAbd ul-Latif al-Harrani, who was his last pupil in the study (samaʿ) of Hadith.

Others have also received permission to narrate from him, including: Ibn Jubair al-Andalusi; Zaki al-Din ʿAbd al-ʿAzim al-Mundhiri; Saʾin al-Din Muhammad ibn Anjab Naʿal Baghdadi; Nasih al-Din Ibn al-Hanbali, the preacher; Shaykh Shams al-Din ʿAbd ul-Rahman; Ahmad ibn Abi al-Khayr; Khidr ibn Hamawayh; Qutb ibn ʿAsrun; and al-Fakhr ʿAli ibn al-Bukhari, who was among the last of them.

==His Religious and Political Controversies==
Apart from preaching, teaching, and occasionally participating in debates among scholars of different schools, which occupied almost all of his time, Ibn al-Jawzi did not engage in any other pursuits. He never left Baghdad except for Hajj pilgrimage. Despite receiving attention from caliphs and rulers, he never held any formal political or official position. Despite repeatedly criticizing the relationship between scholars and statesmen in his works such as “Sayd al-Khatir” and “Talbis Iblis (the delusion of Satan)”, he himself had connections with caliphs, viziers, and other powerful figures, as revealed in various parts of his “al-Muntazam”.

In two instances, he mentions being entrusted with responsibilities by the Caliph: firstly, in 569/1173, when all preachers except three were banned from conducting assemblies, he was appointed as the sole Hanbali preacher in Baghdad.

However, this position cannot be considered an official government role, as its origin was more of a general acceptance among his coreligionists (i.e. the Hanbalis). Another instance was in 571/1175, when upon the recommendation of Sahib al-Makhzan (Minister of Treasury) and the Caliph’s command, he was chosen to oversee the combating of heresies (the inquisition or the inspection of beliefs). This position also appears to have had more of a religious tint rather than a governmental aspect. Considering Ibn al-Jawzi’s bias against innovators, as expressed in his works, especially “Tadlis Iblis (the Devil’s deception)” and “Sayd al-Khatir (hunting the mind),” it is likely that he considered himself religiously obligated to accept this role.

His controversies and conflicts in his sermons and teaching sessions with groups that he considered innovators, as well as his vigorous actions as the overseer combating heresies, led to his troubles in the ending years of his life:

Regarding his troubles, it is recorded that in 583/1187, during the tenure of Ibn Yunus al-Hanbali as the vizier of al-Nasir, possibly at Ibn al-Jawzi’s instigation and in his presence, a council was convened against ʿAbd al-Salam ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab ibn Abd al-Qadir al-Jili.

In this council, it was ordered to burn his library due to its alleged content of heretical books and books containing the worship of the stars (astrological books?), as well as books on the subject of ʿUlum al-Awaʾil (rational sciences vs. canonical sciences) and his ancestor’s school was taken away from him and handed over to Ibn al-Jawzi.

In 590/ 1194 CE, al-Nasir appointed Abu al-Muzaffar Muʾayyidd al-Din Muhammad ibn Ahmad, known as Ibn al-Qassab, who was a Shi’a, as his vizier, replacing Ibn Yunus al-Hanbali. He arrested Ibn Yunus Hanbali and persecuted his associates.

ʿAbd al-Salam ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab presented Ibn al-Jawzi as an anti-Shi’a scholar and one of the supporters of Ibn Yunus, claiming he was from the descendants of Abu Bakr and one of the chief supporters of Ibn Yunus, and handed him over to Ibn al-Qassab. He also said: “(having devised a plan) he (i.e. Ibn Yunus) had my ancestor’s madrasa be taken from me and handed it over to him (i.e. Ibn al-Jawzi), and with his advice, my library burned.

Ibn al-Qassab informed this story to al-Nasir who sympathized with the Shi’a and had nothing to do with Ibn al-Jawzi, and occasionally was blamed by the latter in his sermons. Then the caliph ordered Ibn al-Jawzi to be handed over to ʾAbd al-Salam. ʾAbd al-Salam came to Ibn al-Jawzi’s house, abused him, spoke harshly to him, placed a seal on his house and library, and scattered his family.

Ibn al-Jawzi was chained and carried by boat to the city of Wasit (a city between Kufa and Basra, Iraq), and held him in a house in “Darb al-Diwan”, appointing someone to serve and guard him. During this time, some people would visit him to hear Hadith from him, and he sent many poems from there to Baghdad. He spent five years there in this manner. Ibn Rajab adds: At the age of 80, he managed all his affairs himself: washing his clothes, cooking his meals, and drawing water from the well. He was not allowed to leave the house for bathing or any other purpose.

It is reported from Ibn al-Jawzi himself that he said:

“During this time, I would recite the whole Qur’an once a day, but due to the sorrow I felt from being separated from my son Yusuf, I did not recite Surah Yusuf (Q 12).”

He was released in 595/1198 and returned to Baghdad. A large group joyously welcomed him. On Fridays, he led the congregational prayers for the people, and on Saturdays, he participated in sermon sessions attended by scholars, Sufis, and Shaykhs (managers) of the caravanserais. The crowd was so large that his voice did not reach the end of the gathering.

Regarding his release from prison, it is written that his son Muhyi al-Din Yusuf, who himself was engaged in preaching, sought help from the Caliph’s mother, who had an ardent zeal for Ibn al-Jawzi. She asked her son al-Nasir to bring the shaykh back to Baghdad. Thus, Ibn al-Jawzi was returned to Baghdad and continued to engage in preaching, teaching, and writing until his passing.

==His Beliefs and Opinions==
Even though Ibn al-Jawzi is known as a distinguished figure of the Hanbalis in his time, and that his contemporaries considered the glory and prosperity of the Hanbali school as a result of his efforts and scholarly personality, the elders of the Hanbalis after him such as Shaykh Muwaffaq al-Din al-Maqdisi said about him, “We are not satisfied with his compilations in the Sunnah (the Prophet’s precedent and lifestyle) and his way in terms of of following the Sunnah.”

Ibn Qadisi, after praising Ibn al-Jawzi for his asceticism and worship, writes:

“Some of the scholars of our denomination were displeased with him because his statements were seen as inclined towards interpretation (taʾwil).”

It seems that some of his speeches in gatherings of preaching, as well as some of his works, did not have a positive impact and caused dissatisfaction among his coreligionists.”

Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi (Ibn al-Jawzi’s grandson) mentions:
“One day, my grandfather Abu al-Faraj (Ibn al-Jawzi) was on the pulpit in the presence of the Caliph al-Nasir and the great scholars of Baghdad. He cursed Yazid (ibn Muʿawiya), upon which some people stood up and left the assembly.”

He also writes that his grandfather, in his book al-Radd ʿala al-Mutaʿassib al-ʿAnid al-Maniʿ min Dhamm Yazid (refuting the obstinate supporters of Yazid who discourage one to curse him), stated:

“It is narrated in a hadith that whoever commits one hundredth of the actions of Yazid is cursed...”

He also mentions hadiths from al-Bukhari and Muslim in their Sahihs regarding this matter.

It is recorded that Ibn al-Jawzi’s strong reactions and outbursts towards others were influenced by al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, which Ibn al-Jawzi’s grandson (Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi) expressed astonishment about in his Mirʾat al-Zaman (lit. Mirror of the Times)”.

== Ibn al-Jawzi’s Shi’i Inclinations ==
Ibn al-Jawzi’s praises for Ahl al-Bayt such as mentioning the virtues of ImamʿAli (ʿa.s.) and Lady Fatimah (ʿa.s.), and quoting narrations in praise of Imam Husayn (ʿa.s.) and hadiths from some Infallible Imams, have led some prominent Shi’a figures to discuss Ibn al-Jawzi’s Shi’a affiliation. Khwansari writes:

“It is not unlikely that Ibn al-Jawzi was Shi’a and pretended to be Sunni for pragmatic reasons.”

Then he presents these reasons for his opinion:

1. He narrated ‘Radd al-Shams’ (the miracle of turning the sun back to the sky after it had set) regarding ImamʿAli (ʿa.s.) from the pulpit.

2. As mentioned by the majority of scholars, he was once asked in the presence of followers of both schools (Shi’a and Sunni) whether Abu Bakr or ImamʿAli (ʿa.s.) was superior. He replied, ‘Whoever’s daughter is in his house’.

[It denotes for a Sunni that he (i.e. Abu Bakr) whose daughter (i.e. ʿAʾisha) is in his house (i.e. the Prophet’s house) is superior.

It denotes for a Shi’a that he (i.e. the Prophet) whose daughter (Fatimah) is in his house (i.e. in Ali’s house), is superior.]

Also, it is recorded in the narrations of the hadith scholars of Nishabur that he was asked about the number of Imams, and he replied, ‘Four, four, four’. [Denoting for the Sunnis the ‘Four Caliphs’ stated with emphasis, and denoting for the Shiites the ‘Twelve Imams’, the result of ‘four’ multiply three that makes twelve.]

3. He was asked how Yazid could be blamed for the killing of Imam Husayn (AS) while Yazid was in Syria and Imam Husayn was in Iraq. In response, he recited the couplet composed by al-Sharif al-Radi (the compiler of Nahj al-Balaghah):

‘The arrow whose archer was in Dhi Salam (a wadi in the route of Basrah to al-Hijaz) hit,

The one who was in Iraq; you have surely distanced your target. ’

These instances contribute to the discussion about Ibn al-Jawzi’s stance on Shi’a beliefs.

However, considering the following points, accepting Ibn al-Jawzi’s Shi’a affiliation is not accurate:

1. Khwansari’s discussion about the hadith “Radd al-Shams” contradicts Ibn al-Jawzi’s own words in “Talbis Iblis”.

Ibn al-Jawzi writes:

“The exaggerations of the Rafidis (a disgracing term used by an anti-Shi’a for the Shi’a) regarding their love for ImamʿAli (ʿa.s.) caused them to fabricate many hadiths denoting virtues attributed to him, he himself detests such narrations, some of which I mentioned in my book “al-Mawduʿat” (lit. The fabricated hadiths). This includes the hadith “Radd al-Shams.”

It seems that Khwansari might have mistaken the stance of Ibn al-Jawzi with that of his grandson (Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi) on this hadith.

Indeed, Ibn al-Jawzi’s grandson in his Tadhkirat al-Khawass rejected his grandfather’s statement about this hadith being fabricated. He explicitly mentions,

“My grandfather stated that this hadith is undoubtedly fabricated. No doubt this speech is baseless... We have narrated this hadith from trustworthy narrators without any criticism or weakening in its chain.”

2. Ibn al-Jawzi’s double-entendre (tawriah) in the phrase “whoever’s daughter is in his house” regarding the superiority of ImamʿAli (ʿa.s.) over Abu Bakr, rather than being a form of taqiyya (dissimulation) practiced by a Shi’a among Sunnis, could instead be seen as a clever maneuver from a shrewd Hanbali scholar amidst the growing power of the Shiites. This is particularly highlighted by al-Dhahabi in “Siyar Aʿlam al-Nubalaʾ.” He mentions, “This question was raised during the dominance of the Shi’a, and its answer was to satisfy both denominations.”

In his book “Talbis Iblis” (the Devil’s deception), he mentions some of the core beliefs of the Shi’a and regards them as deceptions by Satan. Additionally, he considers some Shi’a legal opinions to be innovations and superstitions that contradict consensus.

He openly opposed the Fatimids (Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt) - as evidenced in his “al-Muntazam” where he refers to them as the “Dawlat Aal-ʿUbayd (state of the family of little slave)” and calls the Fatimid Caliph the “Sahib Misr (ruler of Egypt)”. When Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi overthrew their rule in 567/1171 and, after approximately 280 years, reintroduced the name of the Abbasid Caliph in the Friday sermons in Egypt, he wrote the book “al-Nasr ʿala Misr” (victory over Egypt) to commemorate this event and presented it to (Caliph) al-Mustadiʾ bi-Amr Allah.

In his fight against innovations, he went so far as to declare from the pulpit:

“The Caliph, through a decree, has granted me permission to combat innovations. Therefore, if you see anyone insulting the Companions, even if they are preachers, report them to me so that I may destroy their house and imprison them for life.”

It appears from the context that he considered the “Shi’a” to be among those who insult the Companions.

Ibn al-Jawzi himself states in “al-Muntazam” that in 57/1175, after all preachers were prohibited from delivering sermons, permission was granted to three individuals: Ibn al-Jawzi (from the Hanbalis), Qazwini (from the Shafi’is), and Abu Mansur’s son-in-law, Muzaffar ibn Ardeshir al-Marwazi al-ʿAbbadi (from the Hanafis).

Sibt ibn al-Jawzi (Ibn al-Jawzi’s grandson) narrates a question-and-answer session with his grandfather, in which ʿAbd al-Rahman (Ibn al-Jawzi) presents hadiths as explicit texts supporting the caliphate of Abu Bakr. Additionally, Ibn al-Jawzi himself authored the book “Afat As-hab al-Hadith (the blight of the traditionists),” discussing hadiths related to Abu Bakr leading the congregational prayer during the Prophet’s illness (the last days of the Prophet’s life), which he viewed as a clear designation of Abu Bakr’s caliphate.

Nevertheless, his knowledge and devotion to ʿAli (ʿa.s.) cannot be denied. He dedicated a chapter of his book “Sayd al-Khatir” titled “The Truth is with ʿAli ibn Abi Talib” to express the esteemed position ofʿʿAli with the Prophet Muhammad (s.ʿa.w.). He states that scholars unanimously agree that whenever ʿAli fought, he undoubtedly knew that the truth was with him, citing the famous prophetic hadith: “O Allah, turn the truth with him wherever he turns.”

== Ibn al-Jawzi’s View on Sufism==
Ibn al-Jawzi directed the harshest criticisms towards the Sufis, attributing most innovations to them. He dedicated the most detailed chapter of his book “Talbis Iblis” (the tenth chapter) to “The Devil’s Deception concerning the Sufis”. However, he also authored separate, standalone books on the virtues of great mystics such as Ibrahim Ad-ham, Bishr al-Hafi, Rabiʿa, Sufyan al-Thawri, and Fudayl ibn ʿAyad. Thus, from his perspective, a distinction must be made between “Sufis” and “great mystics.”

In the tenth chapter of “Talbis Iblis”, after a brief introduction, he writes:

“On the topic of “ghinaʾ (singing)”, detailed discussions have been conducted. Some consider it forbidden (haram), some permissible (mubah), and some disliked (makruh). It should be noted that before declaring something forbidden, disliked, or otherwise, its nature must first be understood. The term ‘singing’ is used in various contexts, including ‘the chants of pilgrims on the Hajj journey’, where they recite poems describing the Kaaba, Zamzam, and the ‘Station of Abraham’, sometimes accompanied by drumbeats. These poems are permissible as they are not exciting and do not lead to immoderation. Similarly, the songs sung by warriors fall into this category.”

Then, Ibn al-Jawzi proceeds with his discussion by referencing various traditions. In cases where Sufis justify their actions using verses and hadiths, he refutes their arguments by critically analyzing the hadiths and discrediting their narrators.

Ibn al-Jawzi's fundamental opposition to what he considers innovations has led him to criticize and condemn “Hafiz Abu Nuʿaym” for what he included in the book “Hilyat al-Awliyaʾ”. In his “Talbis Iblis”, he writes:

"Hafiz Abu Nuʿaym al-Isfahani compiled the book “Hilyat al-Awliyaʾ” for them (i.e. the Sufis) and included inappropriate and disgraceful content regarding Sufism, and he was not ashamed to consider Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, Ali (ʿa.s.), and the eminent Companions as Sufis."

He also writes in the introduction to the book “Sifat al-Safwah”, which is his own abridgment and revision of “Hilyat al-Awliyaʾ”:

“One of the flaws of 'Hilyat al-Awliyaʾ ' is the mention of certain practices by the Sufis, which are not permissible”.

== Ibn al-Jawzi and the Science of Kalam (Islamic Theology)==

Ibn al-Jawzi says about the science of kalam:

“Nothing is more harmful to the common people than the science of kalam. Just as a child is prevented from approaching a river for fear of drowning, people should be kept from listening to and delving into theological issues.

For the common people, it is sufficient to believe in God, His angels, His heavenly books, His prophets, and the Day of Resurrection, and to be content with what the early generations (Salaf) believed.

They should know that the Qur’an is the word of God and is created (meaning it is not eternal). The concept of God’s “Istawaʾ” (lit. to settle) on the Throne is true (‘The All-beneficent settled on the Throne’ – Qur'an, 20:5), but the manner of it is unknown to us. The Messenger of God only obligated people to have faith, and the Companions never discussed philosophical terms like ‘substances and accidents’ (jawahir wa aʿrad). Therefore, whoever dies following their way has died as a believer, free from innovation. Whoever does not know how to swim and steps beyond the shore is certain to drown.”

==His Opinion on al-Ghazzali==
Although Ibn al-Jawzi praised the scholarly status and some of the works of “Imam Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazzali (d. 505/1111),” he severely criticized him for certain contents of the book “Ihyaʾ ʿUlum al-Din”. He wrote that al-Ghazzali abandoned the “law of jurisprudence” in this book and composed it according to the Sufi school of thought.

Ibn al-Jawzi then recounts a story from that book about a man who resorts to theft to “erase his rank (jah) and struggle against his self (nafs).” He writes, “These are disgraceful and contrary to the rulings of jurisprudence,” and adds:

“Similar statements are abundant in this book. I have compiled these errors in a book and named it “Iʿlam al-Ahyaʾ bi-Aghlat al-Ihyaʾ (Informing the living of the errors in Ihyaʾ)”. In my other book, “Talbis Iblis” I have also pointed out some of these errors.”

After quoting another narration from “Ihyaʾ” and discrediting it, he says:

“There are many fabricated and unauthentic hadiths in Ihyaʾ and the reason is the author’s lack of knowledge in the transmission of hadith.”

Ibn al-Jawzi also reproached Abu Hamid in various other parts of his works.

From studying the instances of Ibn al-Jawzi’s criticism and opposition to al-Ghazzali, it appears that the main reasons for his opposition are the same issues on which he bases the most effective part of his attack in “Talbis Iblis”, namely Sufism and esotericism. In “Talbis Iblis”, we read:

“Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali wrote the book “Ihyaʾ ʿUlum al-Din” according to the Sufi school of thought, and filled it with false hadiths of which he was unaware of their falsehood... ”

He also said:

'The stars, sun, and moon that the Prophet Ibrahim (`a.s.) saw are (indeed) lights that are put as a screen (between God and people), and God did not intend their commonly understood meanings.'”

This statement by al-Ghazzali is akin to the utterances of the esotericists (batiniyyah). He also wrote in his book “al-Mufassih bi al-Ahwal” that “Sufis, in their wakefulness, see angels and the spirits of prophets, hear voices from them, and benefit from them. Then they transcend the level of observing forms and attain stations that cannot be described.” A lack of knowledge of the traditions, hadiths, and Islam leads to such statements...

== The Limits of Reason According to Ibn al-Jawzi ==
Ibn al-Jawzi discusses the limits of reason (ʿaql), saying:

“One must be cautious with reason from within reason.”

He explains that when we attempt to understand God with our reason, our knowledge ultimately reaches its limit with sensory perception, and we become involved in analogies. Therefore, “caution with reason through reason” means being mindful and recognizing that God is not physical and bears no resemblance to anything. Sometimes, a wise person observes the actions of God Almighty and encounters things that reason cannot comprehend, such as pains, the slaughter of animals, enemies’ dominion over God’s friends (awliya’ Allah), calamities befalling the righteous, and so forth, where reason, by its nature, does not find wisdom in these occurrences.

“Caution with reason through reason” in this regard is to say:

“Has it not been established that God is the Sovereign and Wise, and He does not do any action in vain? Upon this reconsideration of the reason, it becomes evident that His wisdom is veiled to us in these actions. Therefore, we must submit to His wisdom.

The objections of many people and the opinions of many notables, among whom the foremost was Iblis (Devil), stem from this misconception, leading them into the abyss of misguidance. The story of Khidr and Moses (ʿa.s.) in the Holy Qur’an (18:65-82) also pertains to this very point — that is, ‘caution with reason through reason’”.

==His Views on Society==
Ibn al-Jawzi holds intriguing views about different groups of people. He first divides people into “learned” and “ignorant,” and then further categorizes the ignorant into various groups, enumerating their characteristics.

He criticizes scholars who specialize only in one field and condemns those who engage in sciences like alchemy, likening their work to delirium. He adds:

“Some scholars and preachers, constrained by financial difficulties, seek refuge in the courts of rulers to attain worldly wealth, even though almost all the wealth of kings has been amassed through improper means.”

He warns scholars against associating with powerful figures (the owners of power) and advises them to adopt the approach of (and to follow in the footsteps of) the Messenger of God, his Companions, and the early righteous Followers. He also urges them not to fall short in associating with scholars, paying attention to diverse opinions, studying books, seizing opportunities, and acting upon knowledge.

In his “Said al-Khatir” Ibn al-Jawzi dedicates a section to “Poverty and its Effects” cautioning scholars and wise men who lack financial means against becoming ensnared by the allure of kings or deceiving the masses. He praises those scholars who pass their days in contentment through sole trading, and making fresh copies of books, and admonishes contemporary scholars who resort to the courts of rulers due to their worldliness or deceive the common people.

==Ibn Jawzi's Viewpoint about Governance and Politics ==
In the seventh chapter of his “Talbis Iblis” Ibn al-Jawzi writes:

“The Shariʿah (divine law) is the divine politics, and it is impossible for it to contain any flaw.”

He refutes the perspective of those who prioritize politics over divine law, citing the verse “We have not neglected anything in the Book” (Qur'an 6:38) as evidence. Regarding governance, he criticizes the notion that “I am only obeying the rules” (al-maʾmur maʿdhur), arguing that sometimes a superior ruler issues unjust commands, and obedience to such commands aids the oppressor.

He elevates authority (wilayah) and governance to the highest and most noble position after prophethood, contingent upon safeguarding the interests of the subjects, administering justice, and refraining from tyranny. He believes that a ruler’s benevolence towards the citizens and their just rulings bring about abundant blessings, while malevolence and tyranny lead to droughts and calamities.

He believes that subjects (i.e. citizens) can be categorized into two groups: the elite (al-khawass) and the commoners (al-ʿawamm). He emphasizes the need for greater scrutiny of the “elite” because they serve as instruments of governance, and this scrutiny should not be intermittent, because even trustworthy individuals can betray, and well-intentioned persons may (falter and) deceive. However, regarding the “commoners,” one should maintain a balance between fear and hope, showing them more gentleness and patience. One should not heed the statements they express against one another (and should ignore the discord among them) because people often conceal their true intentions behind deceptive words.

Ibn al-Jawzi does not consider it permissible to use the title “Shahanshah” (King of Kings) for monarchs. He writes that authentic narrations indicate a prohibition on using this title. When the title was added to the epithets of “Jalal al-Dawla Abu Kalijar” in 439 /1047, the Caliph al-Qaʾim ordered it to be included in sermons. This caused uproar among the public and led to protests against the speakers so that they were stoned! However, when the scholars were consulted on this matter, many of them deemed the use of this title permissible, comparing it to titles like “Qadi al-Qudat” (Judge of Judges) and “Kafi al-Kufat” (Sufficient of the Sufficient), arguing that “King of Kings” refers metaphorically to earthly rulers. However, Ibn al-Jawzi, after narrating this incident in his “al-Muntazim” affirms the opinion of Qadi al-Qudat Abu al-Hasan al-Mawardi, who was closely associated with “Jalal al-Dawla” and did not consider its use permissible (See: ʿAlemzadeh, Hadi, vol. 3, pp. 262-72).

==Ibn al-Jawzi’s Position in the Eyes of the Others==
Ibn al-Jawzi’s scholarly and religious stature led others to bestow upon him various titles, sometimes exaggerated: “Shaykh al-ʿIraq”, “Imam al-Afaq (leader of horizons)”, “al-Imam al-Hafiz al-ʿAlamah (memorizing know-all leader)” “Shaykh al-Waqt (Shaykh of the ages)”, “ʿAlim al-ʿIraq wa Waʿizh al-Afaq (the scholar of Iraq and the preacher of horizens)”, “al-Imam al-Awhad (the unique leader)”, and “al-Hibr al-Mutakallim (the learned theologist)”. Dhahabi, in his “Siyar Aʿlam al-Nubalaʾ,” described him as follows:

“He was prominent in biographical writing, unrivaled. He possessed eloquence in both poetry and prose. He delves into details, bewilders others, brings joy and vigor (for the readers), and prolongs discourse.”

“Like him, no one has come before or will come after. He was a standard-bearer of preaching, possessing arts and skills with a pleasing appearance, a melodious voice, and good character. He was an ocean of interpretation, a scholar of biographies and history, knowledgeable in Hadith and its sciences, a jurist well-versed in consensus and divergence, proficient in medicine, with skills in comprehension, intelligence, memory, recall, and adeptness in compilation and composition. He adorned his writings with elegance, refinement in expression, and admirable qualities, earning widespread respect and admiration, both from the elites and the commoners. I know of no one who has written what he has written.”

Ibn ʿImad al-Hanbali, in his “Shadharaat al-Dhahab (particles of gold)” has written:

“Ibn al-Jawzi dedicated himself to preaching from a young age, excelling above his peers, composing beautiful poetry, and writing indescribable descriptions with his own hand. He enjoyed unparalleled popularity and respect, with reports suggesting his assemblies attracted up to a hundred thousand people. Caliph al-Mustadhiʾ even attended his gatherings incognito several times. ”

“Ibn Taghri al-Bardi” (813-77/1410-70), in his work “al-Nujum al-Zahirah fi Muluk Misr wa al-Qahira (shining stars in the land of Egypt and Cairo)” believes that Ibn Jawzi’s virtue, memory, and extensive knowledge are more renowned than what he himself would write in his book.

Ibn Kathir, in his book “al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah,” has written the following about Ibn al-Jawzi:

“He is among the scholars who excelled and were unparalleled in many fields of knowledge. Ibn al-Jawzi authored numerous works, both large and small, totaling around three hundred. He personally wrote nearly two hundred volumes of books. He possessed an unparalleled skill in the art of preaching, unlike anyone before him. Similarly, in his approach and method, in his eloquence and rhetoric, in the sweetness of his speech, in the impact of his preaching, in delving into subtle meanings, in making strange things familiar through sensory matters, and in conveying short phrases that carry deep meanings, making them quickly understandable and graspable. He excelled in all sciences, especially in various types of interpretation and Hadith.” (Al-Ghazouli, ʿAbd al ʿAziz Sayyid Hashim, pp. 157-9).

==His Death==
Ibn al-Jawzi passed away after his final sermon on the 17th of Ramadan, 597 AH (September 29, 1200 CE). He fell ill shortly thereafter and died five days later, on a Friday night between the Maghrib and ʿIshaʾ Prayers, at his home in Qutufa, a neighborhood in eastern Baghdad.

Reports on his funeral procession illustrate his social standing and influence among the people: Markets were closed in mourning, and the populace of Baghdad gathered to accompany his funeral. Such a large crowd assembled that his procession did not reach its destination until after the Friday prayers, where a grave had been prepared for him in the cemetery of Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Notable scholars were unable to lead his funeral prayer, and little of his shroud remained due to the number of mourners who participated in his burial rites.

==His Works==
Ibn al-Jawzi began writing at the age of 13 and continued prolifically until the end of his life, leaving behind a vast body of work. His remarkable intellectual capacity aided him greatly in this endeavor.

Ibn Dabīthī states:

“I do not know anyone who has authored more works across various scientific disciplines than Ibn al-Jawzi. I have seen a booklet dedicated solely to listing the titles of his books.”

Najīyah ʿAbdullah Ibrahim states:

“I have edited this booklet - consisting of two folios - and prepared it for publication.”

It was said about his prolific output:

“If we divide the number of essays Ibn al-Jawzi wrote by the days of his life, it becomes apparent that he penned approximately 9 essays each day. This prolific output invites comparison with Abu Jaʿfar Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, who is said to have written 40 pages daily.”

It is also recorded that Ibn al-Jawzi collected the shavings from the reed-pens he used to write the hadiths of the Prophet Muhammad. Upon his death, he instructed that these shavings be used to heat the water for his funeral bath (ghusl). This was done, and the shavings exceeded the amount needed!

Considering Ibn al-Jawzi’s own account of his numerous writings (2,000 works) and the number of his surviving works (around 384), as indicated by various sources, it must be acknowledged that many of his works have been lost due to natural disasters, wars, and fires.

===Critique of Works===
Despite Ibn al-Jawzi’s esteemed status as an author, he has not been immune to criticism from scholars. The primary reason for this may be his arrogance and self-importance. Additionally, his frequent disparagement of scholars from other denominations, and sometimes even those within his own, has led to further critiques. Moreover, his works contain numerous errors, which can be attributed to his prolific output, failure to review his writings after their completion, and his tendency to interpret certain issues. Notably, he lacked expertise in addressing theological ambiguities and in refuting the views of theologians.

Al-Dhahabi, quoting “Muwaffaq ʿAbd al-Latif,” writes:

“In the writings of Ibn al-Jawzi, many errors are found, as he did not revise his books after completing them.”

He then confirms this statement, adding:

“Due to his failure to review his works, baseless statements can be found in them. He authored so many works that even if he were to live another lifetime, he would not be able to correct and rewrite them.”

Ibn Rajab also states:

“Ibn al-Jawzi, as soon as he completed a book, would begin writing another without revising the former. At times, he was engaged in writing multiple books simultaneously. If this were not the case, he would not have produced such a multitude of works.”

Additionally, Ibn al-Furat writes:

“The author of 'al-Muʿjam', who had read Ibn al-Jawzi’s book 'Zad al-Masir' multiple times with him, pointed out numerous errors in his books.”

===Ibn al-Jawzi’s Proficiency in Various Fields===
His writings in various scientific fields should be considered summaries of the works of others. Without having studied a discipline under a master or becoming an expert in it, he would quote from books. Consequently, it is reported that he said, “I am a compiler, not an author.”

In Hadith:

Ibn al-Jawzi himself wrote about his mastery of hadiths:

“Since most of my engagement has been with hadith and its related sciences, I can almost always determine whether any hadith presented to me is authentic (sahih), good (hasan), or fabricated (mawduʿ).”

This statement is entirely contrary to what hadith scholars such as al-Dhahabi and al-Suyuti have reported.

Some evidence also suggests that Ibn al-Jawzi had limited knowledge of general history and the state of the world in his time. For instance, in his book “Sayd al-Khatir”, he wrote:

“After the death of the Caesar (during the early Islamic conquests), no other Caesar came to power!”

In Poetry:
“ʿImad al-Din al-Katib,” citing five examples of Ibn al-Jawzi’s poetry in various rhymes, writes about him:

“He possesses artificial expressions and innovative, pleasant allusions, with a strong affinity for the art of paronomasia. Some researchers have written that his collection of poems reaches ten volumes.

Ibn Rajab praises his poems for their beauty and then, in addition to the poems cited by “Abu Shama,” he quotes more verses from him.”

Ibn al-Jawzi himself included a qasida (ode) in “al-Muntazam”, which he composed in praise of Caliph al-Mustadiʾ. This poem consists of 25 hemistiches with the rhyme “aan.”

Three books of poetry are attributed to Ibn al-Jawzi: “Ihkam al-Ishʿar bi Ahkam al-Ashʿar”, “Ma Qatluhu min al-Ashʿar,” and “al-Mukhtar min al-Ashʿar.”

===List of His Works===
#Al-Muntazam fi Tarikh al-Muluk wa al-Umam
#Talbis Iblis
#Zad al-Masir fi ʿIlm al-Tafsir
#Afat As-hab al-Hadith
#Akhbar Ahl al-Rusukh
#Dafʿ al-Shubhah wa al-Radd ʿala al-Mujassimah
#Bustan al-Waʿizin wa Riyad al-Samiʿin
#Rawh al-Arwah
#Ruʾous al-Qawarir
#Sayd al-Khatir
#ʿAjib al-Khutab
#Laftat al-Kabid ila [fi] Nasihat al-Walad
#Yaqutat al-Mawaʿiz wa al-Mawʿizah
#Tanbih al-Naʾim al-Ghumr ʿala Hifz Mawasim al-ʿUmr
#Al-Tibb al-Rawhani
#Taqwim al-Lisan
#Akhbar al-Zurraf wa al-Mutamajinin
#Akhbar al-Nisaʾ
#Al-Adhkiyaʾ
#Talqih Fuhum Ahl al-Athar
#Al-Hamqa wa Mughfalin
#Al-Dhahab al-Masbuk fi Sayr al-Muluk
#Dhamm al-Hawa
#Sifat (Safwat?) al-Safwah
#Manaqib Ahmad ibn Hanbal
#Manaqib al-Hasan al-Basri
#Manaqib ʿUmar ibn al-Khattab, aw, Sirat ʿUmar ibn al-Khattab
#Manaqib ʿUmar ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAziz, aw, Sirat ʿUmar ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAziz
#Multaqat al-Hikayat
#Mawlid al-Nabi
#Al-Wafa' fi Fada'il al-Mustafa

His Manuscripts:
ʿAbd al Hamid al-ʿAluji, in his book “Mu'allafat Ibn al-Jawzi,” identifies 139 of Ibn al-Jawzi’s 384 works as manuscripts. He lists the libraries where these manuscripts are kept and categorizes them into various subjects as follows:

- The Qur’an and Qur’anic Sciences (10 works)

- Hadith, Rijal al-Hadith (hadith transmitters), and Hadith Sciences (14 works)

- Madhhab, Usul (legal theory), Fiqh (Islamic law), and Doctrines (12 works)

- Preaching, Ethics, and Spiritual Practices (72 works)

- Medicine (3 works)

- Poetry and Lexicology (2 works)

- General Biographies (9 works)

- Specific Biographies (9 works)

- Anecdotes and Stories (5 works)

- History (1 work)

- Geography (2 works)

==Introduction to Some Works==
Among the surviving works of Ibn al-Jawzi, “a-Muntazam” and “Talbis Iblis” hold particular significance. We will examine these works in more detail here:

1- “Al-Muntazam fi Tarikh al-Muluk wa al-Umam”:

This book is Ibn al-Jawzi’s most important work on history. In this book, after an introduction that begins with the phrase “Praise be to Allah, who preceded and created times and invented colors...,” the author presents arguments for the existence of Almighty God and then describes the earliest creations. He chronicles the history of the world from the beginning up to the time of the Prophet and from then until 574 AH/1178 CE (the caliphate of al-Mustadiʾ, 566-575 AH/1171-1179 CE).

He organizes historical events before the Hijra according to chapters, and after the Hijra, he arranges them year by year. For each year, he first mentions significant news and events that he found interesting or astonishing. Then, he lists the deaths of notable figures, providing their names—sometimes with brief descriptions of their lives and works—alphabetically.

“Ibn al-Qifti,” in his discussion on the science of history and historical books, considers Ibn al-Jawzi’s “al-Muntazam” as one of the successive supplements to “Tarikh al-Tabari”—each written to complete the works that preceded it. He says:

“The account of events following 'al-Muntazam' was continued by Ibn Qadisi until 616 AH (1219 CE), completing it.”

In “al-Muntazam”, Ibn al-Jawzi describes various events in a manner reminiscent of modern-day newspapers.

Important political events, conspiracies, news related to wars, cultural events (such as holding preaching sessions, debates, establishment of schools and the names of their teachers and the muʿids (teachers' assistants)—where “muʿid” refers to someone who continues teaching after the original teacher to reinforce learning), religious and theological disputes, the history of building constructions from inception to completion, murders, thefts, deceits, fires, remarkable events, news concerning the caliph (hunting trips, travels, illnesses, etc.), reports on fluctuating prices during times of inflation and deflation, famines and scarcities of foodstuffs, outbreaks of diseases, natural disasters (river floods, severe storms, heavy hails, etc.), reports on the hottest days of the year, news about iftars (fast-breaking meals during Ramadan) and various ceremonial banquets, reports on executions (of thieves, murderers, heretics), and more—so much so that if the accuracy of these reports is verified, especially in volumes nine and ten which cover the author’s lifetime, this book can be considered a comprehensive reflection of his era. From the perspective of humanities studies, especially social sciences, it holds significant importance.

2- “Talbis Iblis”:

In the brief introduction to this book, Ibn al-Jawzi writes:

“Allah, glorified and exalted, sent Muhammad (peace be upon him), raised the veils, and established beneficial laws. His Companions were with him, illuminated by his light, safe from the enemy and its deceit. But as the daylight of their existence waned, the shadows of darkness crept in. Desires began to create innovations, and the path became narrow where it used to be wide. The majority split into factions, becoming sects. Then Iblis (Devil) arose, disguising, embellishing, dividing, and integrating. His spying is only permissible in the darkness of ignorance; if the dawn of knowledge were to shine upon him, his deceit would be exposed.

Therefore, I saw fit to warn against his schemes and expose his deceptions. Indeed, in describing evil lies a warning against falling into it.”

“After the demise of the Prophet Muhammad (s.ʿa.w.) and the departure of his companions,… desires resurfaced, innovations emerged, … and most people diverged into various groups. Iblis (Devil) seized the opportunity to deceive them, promote falsehoods, sow discord, and gather the misguided. Therefore, I undertook the task of writing 'Talbis Iblis' to warn people against his deceptions and expose his traps.

Ibn al-Jawzi structured this book into 13 chapters, some of which subdivided into sections and subsections. Since these chapters and sections largely reflect Ibn al-Jawzi’s beliefs and views, delving into the main topics of these chapters and sections aids in understanding his character more deeply.”

Chapter One: On the Command to Adhere to the Sunnah and the Community

In this chapter, Ibn al-Jawzi clarifies the necessity of adhering to the “Sunnah” based on the Sunni traditions, and explains the concept of “Sunnah” as understood by the adherents of Sunni Islam. He introduces the “Ahl al-Jamaʿah (People of the Community)” as the saved sect, referring to a hadith about division.

Chapter Two: On the Blameworthiness of Innovations and Innovators

In this chapter, Ibn al-Jawzi categorizes innovators into six main groups, with each main group further subdivided into twelve subgroups.

The main groups of innovators, according to Ibn al-Jawzi, include the Haruriyyah, Qadariyyah, Jahmiyyah, Murjiʾah, Rafidah, and Jabriyyah. He further divides the Rafidah into two subgroups: Shi’a and Imamiyyah, describing them as follows:

“The Shi’a believe that ʿAli (may Allah be pleased with him) is the designated successor (wasi) of the Prophet Muhammad (s.ʿa.w.) and the one invested with authority (wali al-amr) after him. They consider those who pledged allegiance to someone other than him (after the Prophet’s demise) as disbelievers. The Imamiyyah believe that it is impossible for the world to be without an Imam from the descendants of al-Husayn (ʿa.s). The Imam is taught by Gabriel (Jibril), and when he dies, someone like him becomes his successor.”

Chapter Three: Warning Against the Temptations and Deceptions of Iblis (Satan)

In this chapter, Ibn al-Jawzi, referencing the Holy Qur’an and Hadiths, elaborates on the deceitfulness of Satan. He states, “Every human has a Satan, and Satan flows through a person like blood (that flows in one's veins)”. He then dedicates a section to the necessity of seeking refuge in God from the evil of Satan.

Chapter Four: On the Meaning of Deception and Arrogance

According to Ibn al-Jawzi, deception is presenting falsehood as truth, and arrogance is a form of ignorance (or vanity) that makes the incorrect seem correct and the ugly appear beautiful.

Chapter Five: On the Mention of Satan's Deception in Beliefs and Religions

In this chapter, Ibn al-Jawzi discusses the invalidity of the beliefs of the Sophists, the materialists, the naturalists (believers in the four elements), the dualists, the philosophers and their followers, the believers in celestial bodies (those who worship heavenly bodies as spiritual entities), idolaters, fire and sun worshippers, the people of the pre-Islamic era, deniers of prophethood, Jews, Christians, Sabians, Magians, astrologers, resurrection deniers, and transmigrationists.

He then explains how Satan deceives Muslims in their beliefs, discussing following (taqlid) and ijtihad (independent reasoning) and related issues. Following a discourse on the science of Kalam (Islamic theology) and a critique of theologians, he details how Satan deceives the Kharijites, the Rafidites, and the Batinites (Ismailis, Sabbateans, Babakites, Muhammarites, Qarmatians, Khurramites, and Taʿlimites).

Chapter Six: Mentioning Satan’s Deception of Scholars in the Branches of Knowledge

In this chapter, Satan’s deception of reciters, traditionists, jurists, dialecticians, preachers and storytellers, lexicologists and literati, poets, and distinguished scientists is explained.

Chapter Seven: Mentioning Satan’s Deception of Governors and Kings

Chapter Eight: Mentioning Satan’s Deception of Worshipers in the Acts of Worship

In this chapter, how worshipers are deceived in purification, ablution, call to prayer, prayer, recitation of the Qur’an, fasting, pilgrimage, jihad, enjoining good, and forbidding evil is discussed.

Chapter Nine: Mentioning Satan’s Deception of Ascetics (and Devotees)

In this chapter, Ibn al-Jawzi discusses renouncing the world (worldly pleasure), reproaching scholars, turning away from acquiring knowledge, abstaining from permissible acts, adopting asceticism, love of status (and position), ostentatious appearances of asceticism, refraining from purchases, showing off, self-conceit in one’s worship, acting upon illusions and fantasies as if they were real occurrences, and other instances of Satan’s deception.

Chapter Ten: On the Mention of the Delusion of Sufis

Ibn Jawzi begins this chapter by categorizing Sufis as a group of ascetics who are recognized by their qualities, signs, and circumstances similar to other ascetics. He then proceeds to explain the reasons behind naming this group as “Sufiyyah (Sufis)” and “Mutasawwifah (Sufistic people)” based on historical accounts. Following that, he discusses some erroneous beliefs held by Sufis.

Chapter Eleven: On Mentioning the Delusion upon the Pious Ones with What Resembles Spiritual Miracles

Chapter Twelve: On Mentioning the Delusion upon the Laymen

Chapter Thirteen: On Mentioning the Delusion upon All People with Prolonged Hopes

“Sifat al-Safwah”: Ibn al-Jawzi mentions in the preface of his book that he authored this work on the lives of the righteous and virtuous individuals to avoid the shortcomings and errors found in the book “Hilyat al-Awliyaʾ” by Abu Nuʿaym al-Isfahani.

The book covers the biography of the Prophet (s.aʿ.w.), detailing his manners and customs. Following this, it mentions the male and female Companions who were renowned for their knowledge, piety, and devotion. It then continues with the Followers (Tabiʿin) and those who came after them, organized according to their generations.

“Al-Wafaʾ bi Ahwal al-Mustafa”: In this work, Ibn al-Jawzi elaborates in detail on the life of the Prophet Muhammad (s.aʿ.w.), covering everything one might want to know about him, including his characteristics, morals, mission, struggles (jihad), family conditions, interactions with neighbors and people, and more. Structurally, the book is unique in its organization, containing 537 chapters within 39 sections.

“Sayd al-Khatir”: This book is a summary of Ibn al-Jawzi’s thoughts and life experiences, written during the ending years of his life. He aimed to express his ideas and experiences in an accessible language with interesting phrases and eloquent words. The book lacks a specific order and covers topics such as knowledge and scholars, heart, soul and intellect, worship and worshippers, the afterlife and preparing for it, engaging in theology, family and society, time and its value, reflections on himself, and more (see: Al-Ghazouli, ʿAbd al ʿAziz Sayyid Hashim, pp. 148-149).

==Bibliography==
1. ʿAlemzadeh, Hadi, “Ibn al-Jawzi, Abu al-Faraj”" in Dāʾirat al-Maʿārif-e Buzurg-e Islāmī (the great Islamic encyclopedia; Encylclopedia Islamica), supervised by Kazem Mousavi Bojnourdi, Tehran, The Center for the Great Islamic Encyclopedia, Second Edition, 1374 SAH (1995 CE).

2. Al-Ghazouli, ʿAbd al ʿAziz Sayyid Hashim, Ibn al-Jawzi: al-Imam al-Murabbi wa al-Waʿiz al-Baligh wa al-ʿAlim al-Mutafannin (the eminent imam, eloquent preacher, and versatile scholar), Dar Al-Qalam, Damascus, First Edition, 1420/ 2000.

[[fa:ابن جوزی، عبدالرحمن بن علی]]

Ibn al-Jawzi, ʿAbd al-Rahman ibn ʿAli

2024-07-27T05:22:20Z

A-esmaili: /* Ibn al-Jawzi’s Position in the Eyes of the Others */

Ibn al-Jawzi, ʿAbd al-Rahman ibn ʿAli

2024-07-27T05:22:02Z

A-esmaili: /* Ibn al-Jawzi’s View on Sufism */

Ibn al-Jawzi, ʿAbd al-Rahman ibn ʿAli

2024-07-27T05:21:43Z

A-esmaili: /* His Sermons and Oratory */

Ibn al-Jawzi, ʿAbd al-Rahman ibn ʿAli

2024-07-27T05:21:26Z

A-esmaili: /* Circumstances of the Era of Ibn al-Jawzi */

Ibn al-Jawzi, ʿAbd al-Rahman ibn ʿAli

2024-07-27T05:20:57Z

A-esmaili: Created page with "{{Infobox person | title = Ibn al-Jawzi, ʿAbd al-Rahman ibn ʿAli | image = NUR01804.jpg | full name = ʿAbd al-Rahman ibn ʿAli | other names = Ibn al-Jawzi | epithet = | lineage = | father's name = | date of birth = | place of birth = | country of birth = | place of residence = | date of death = | martyrdom = | burial place = | length of life = | spouse = | children = | relatives = | religion = | denomination = | occupation = | after than = | before..."

Seyyed Mahmoud Taleqani

2024-06-10T04:43:15Z

A-esmaili:

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Seyyed Mahmoud Taleqani (1910-79), known as Abu Dharr of these times, [was a] Shi’a scholar, orator, Qur'an commentator, writer and contemporary Iranian struggler.

==His Family==
Taleqani family in Taleqan region is among famous seyyeds (descendants of the Prophet). Mahmoud’s great grandfather, Seyyed Ala' ud-din, descended from Imam Muhammad al-Baqir (a.s.). His grandfather, the late Seyyed Agha Mahmoud Taleqani, was one of the famous clerics of Taleqan, but little information is available about him. His grave is located in the cemetery of Geliyard village.

The late Seyyed Agha [Mahmoud] (grandfather of Ayatollah Taleqani) had two sons and six daughters. His eldest son was Seyyed Abul-Hasan, father of Ayatollah Taleqani. Agha Seyyed Abul-hasan was born in 1861, in the village of Geliyard [near the city of] Taleqan. After completing his primary [seminary] education up to the level of “Sutouh” in Taleqan, Qazvin and Isfahan, he left for Iraq to continue his studies. He studied ten years with the greatest authority of the age, Mirza Hasan Shirazi, and seven years in Karbala and under Seyyed Isma’il al-Sadr.

During his stay in Najaf, he learned the profession of watchmaking, by which he used to make a living until the end of his life. After returning to Iran, he started teaching at Marvi Seminary School in Tehran. The late Ayatollah Abul-hasan Taleqani lived in a humble room in the Qanatabad neighborhood of Tehran, and politically, he was a friend and companion of the late [Seyyed Hasan] Modarres and actively participated in the political meetings organized by Modarres (Azizi, Heshmatullah, pp. 19-20).

He died on 28 December 1931in Tehran. His body was buried with great splendor in the shrine of Hazrat `Abdul Azim al-Hasani, and from there, according to his will, it was transferred to Najaf and buried in Wadi al-Salam Cemetery (Mir abul-Qasemi, Seyyed Mohammad Husayn, vol. 30, p. 536).

On the death of Ayatollah Taleqani, Imam Khomeini said in his condolence message about him: “May God’s mercy be upon his noble father who excelled all the pious” (Azizi, Heshmatullah, p. 22).

A few small essays have been left by Seyyed Abul-hasan Taleqani, which include: “Kimiya-ye Hasti (alchemy of the existence)”, Resale-ye Ethna-Ashariyyeh (an essay on the Twelver Shi’a), Siyasat-e Husayni (Imam Husayn-oriented policy), Muhakeme-ye Hijab (The Trial of the Islamic dress code) and the exposition of the late Shaykh Muhammad Husayn Isfahani’s Seminary letures (Mir abol-Qasemi, Seyyed Muhammad Husayn, vol. 30, p. 536).

==His Birth==
Seyyed Mahmoud Taleqani was born on 4 April 1911, in the village of Giliyard near the city of Taleqan, to the second wife of Seyyed Abul-Hasan (Azizi, Heshmatullah, pp. 22-23).

==His Education==
He was sent to school at the age of five, and spent two years studying the Qur’an and learning calligraphy and writing in the village of Gelyard. He studied the Qur’an in the first year under the guidance of Mullah Seyyed Taqi Orazani, and spent the second year reading and writing under Shaykh Karbalai Ali Varkashi, as well as studying the book Moush va Gorbeh (the versified fable of the mice and the cat) by Obayd Zakani [Iranian satirist, d. 772/1331], which according to the common practice of those schools, was popular and was taught along with such books as “Golestan” by Sa’di, “Kalileh and Demneh”.

Seyyed Mahmoud went to Tehran at the age of seven and pursued his primary education at the Mulla Reza School located in Amin us-Sultan Square in Tehran and learned Arabic grammar (morphology and syntax) until the age of ten. With his father’s suggestion and guidance, he left for Qom to continue his education and settled in Radawiyya Seminary School. After some time, he was admitted to Faydiyya Seminary School (Malai Tavani, Ali Reza, pp. 22-23).

==His Masters in Qom==
In Qom, he studied al-Rawda al-Bahiyya fi Sharh al-Lum`a al-Dimashqiya (a voluminous textbook in Shi’a jurisprudence at an intermediate level) with Ayatollah Shahab-uddin Mar’ashi [Najafi], al-Mutawwal (by al-Taftazani, in Arabic rhetoric) with Adib Tehrani and studied for a period of time with Ayatollah Seyyed Muhammad Hujjat. Together with Shaykh Muhammad Taqi Eshraqi and Mirza Khalil Kamarei, who were considered intellectual scholars at that time due to the teaching of philosophy and wisdom, it was widely published. As he studied under Mirza Khalil Kamarei and completed [Mulla Hadi] Sabzevari’s “al-Manzuma” (in philosophy). Apart from this, he held a discussion and commentary session with Shaykh Muhammad Taqi Eshraqi on Thursdays in his home, where many students and scholars attended (ibid., pp. 26-27).

==His Masters in Najaf==
After some time, he went to the [seminary] of Najaf and studied with Shaykh Muhammad Husayn Isfahani [also known as Kompani] and Agha Diya’ ud-Din al-`Iraqi. He returned to Qom from Najaf and after completing his seminary education and obtaining scientific and narrative authorization from his masters, he settled in Tehran around 1938.

==His Scientific Propagation Activity==
In his childhood and youth, Taleqani witnessed Reza Shah’s tyranny, especially his open confrontation with the religion as an institution as well as the religious people, and this situation put so much pressure on him so much so that, according to him, pains and diseases were caused by it and remained with him until the end of his life. His concern in that situation was more than anything else, the careful study of the verses of the Qur’an, Nahj al-Balagha, as well as the history and lifestyle (sira) of the Holy Prophet (s.`a.w.) and the Imams (a.s.). He gradually recognized the goal and destination in terms of social duty.

Taleqani believed that the enemies were trying to exclude the Qur’an from the lives of the Muslims and it seemed that the believers were also used to living without the Qur’an. He gradually came to the conclusion that religious knowledge, after the Qur’an, should be taken from Nahj al-Balagha, and that this book had a very significant role in opening the way and finding answers to religious and social issues.

Therefore, he started translating Nahj al-Balagha and with the cooperation of his teacher, Ayatollah Mirza Khalil Kamarei (1897-1984), he prepared a project for the interpretation and translation of Nahj al-Balagha and after that he used all his power to revive the attention to the Qur’an and Nahj al-Balagha in the lives of Muslims.

Since 1939, Taleqani, by inviting a group of young people, secretly held exegesis sessions in homes and gave exegesis of the Qur’an on a mobile basis in some less-known mosques and schools. Also, in the same year, he was imprisoned for a few days following a conflict with Reza Shah’s agents.

==His Political Struggles==
In August 1941, Taleqani established the Islamic Center, where he interpreted the Qur’an. The method of the Islamic Center was to publish the teachings of the Qur’an and the Sunnah through lectures and the publication of a student magazine. This magazine was banned after publishing eleven issues. People like Mehdi Bazargan (1907-94)) and Seyyed Mojtaba Nawwab Safavi (1924-55) participated in these meetings.

Taleqani was one of the active lecturers and collaborators of the Islamic Council of Technical Faculty of Tehran University, the Islamic Council of Engineering, the Islamic Council of Religion and Knowledge, the Teacher Training Institute, the Organization of Devotees of Islam, and the Muslim League. In these groups and organizations, in addition to publishing and explaining religious teachings, he confronted the spreading trend of Marxism and materialism, and he was probably the first cleric who gave exegetical lectures to the university students. Later, based on the mentioned records, Bazargan introduced Taleqani as the pioneer of the “New Islamic Movement”.

The announcement of the republic by the democratic sect of Azerbaijan [in northwest Iran] made many people worried about the interference of foreigners and the domination of the supporters of Marxism in Iran. In the meantime, the Muslim League, which was founded by a group of clerics in Tehran as a fight against irreligion, sent Taleqani, who was speaking on the radio against the communists at that time, as his representative in the army to Azerbaijan Province to encourage the soldiers and closely monitor the activity of the army and to provide a report.

In the years 1948-9, instead of mobile meetings, Taleqani concentrated his activities in the Hedayat Mosque on [the former] Istanbul Street (now Islamic Republic Street), which at that time was a symbol of being fond of modernism disregarding the religious culture. Very soon, his sessions of the commentary on the Qur’an on Friday Eves attracted the attention of the university students, young people and the public believers, and this mosque became one of the most important bases for the spread of Islamic culture and campaigns.

With the commencement of the nationalization movement of Iran’s oil industry, Taleqani joined this movement. He was a candidate for the city of Chalus people’s representative in the 17th Parliament, but due to the annulment of the elections in that region, he did not enter the parliament. Also, with his encouragement, Ayatollah Muhammad Taqi Khwansari issued a fatwa and supported the nationalization of the oil industry. After the coup d'état on 19 August 1953, his Qur’an commentary sessions and his lectures on the pulpit of the mosques gradually took on a political hue. He cooperated with the National Resistance Movement, and to encourage Muslim activists to combat against the tyranny and the dependent royal government, edited, annotated and published the book “Tanbih al-Umma wa Tanzih al-Milla (lit. awakening the community and sanctifying the religion)” compiled by Ayatollah Shaykh Muhammad Husayn Naini (1860-1936) with an introduction and explanatory footnotes.

Taleqani was one of the supporters of the Jam’iyat-e Fadayian-e Islam (The Devotees [or self-sacrificers] of Islam Association) and had close relations with its founder S. Mojtaba Navvab Safavi (1924-56) and approved the positions and actions of that association. He considered the members of that association as faithful and enthusiastic youths who removed the obstacles on the way to the nationalization of the oil industry, and when they were wanted (by the regime), he gave them refuge, and because of this, he was arrested and detained for several days. The Fada’iyan Association also published Ayatollah Taleqani’s “Islam va melkiyyat (Islam and Ownership)” in their publication “Nabard-e Mellat (the nation’s battle)”. “Islam and Ownership” was one of the first efforts of the Shi’a world to outline an acceptable economic system from the point of view of Islam and distinguish it from capitalism and socialism along with some criticisms against those two schools.

In the 1950s, Taleqani traveled to Muslim countries such as Jordan and Egypt once or twice and participated in several conferences and became familiar from nearby (i.e. was closely involved) with the most important issues of Islamic countries, including the occupation of Palestine and the crimes of the Zionists and the establishment of the aggressing regime of Israel, as well as the idea of proximation between Islamic denominations. In the situation where the then government of Iran had recognized the Zionist regime as a de facto government, Taleqani enlightened the audience about the defense of the rights of the Palestinian people.

Following the formation of the Second National Front (Jebhe-ye Melli) in 1960, Taleqani was elected as one of the members of the Central Council [of the Front], but due to disagreements with some of the Front’s leaders on Islamic and religious issues, he founded - together with Mehdi Bazargan and Yadullah Sahabi - the Iranian Freedom Movement (Nehzat-e Azadi-ye Iran). However, he continued to accompany the Front.

On 19 July 1961, he was arrested for a short time due to holding a ceremony for those killed in the 21 July 1952 uprising (Qiyam-e 30 Tir). After the protests of clerics against the contents of the regulations passed by the government of Asadullah Alam (then Prime Minister 1962-4) regarding State and Provincial Associations (anjomanha-ye eyalati va velayati) in the Fall of 1962 (based on which the elected candidates were exempted from taking an oath by the Qur’an), he tried to establish a link between the religious authorities as well as the clerics and members of the Freedom Movement.

In January 1963, during the referendum of the [so-called] White Revolution, Taleqani together with the leaders of the National Front and the Iranian Freedom Movement were arrested and imprisoned for a few months due to their protest against this action. In the days of Muharram 1383 AH (June 1963), he gave speeches in the Hedayat Mosque exposing the nature of the Shah’s regime and the Zionists and criticizing the White Revolution program. For this reason, after the incident of 5 June 1963 (15 Khordad 1342), he was arrested and after a long trial in a military court, he was sentenced to ten years in prison. His courage, frankness, broad-mindedness and faith were very impressive in that court. In the first session of the trial, he announced that the trial was illegal and in the last session, he addressed the audience and recited verses from Surat al-Fajr (Qur’an 89). Taleqani used to give speeches in prison and had a Qur'an commentary class and even held Festival prayers on Eid al-Fitr (the Day of Fast-breaking). In addition, his good behavior as a cleric among the prisoners had lasting effects and fruits. Taleqani was finally released in October 1967, following the revelations of Iranians abroad (about the scandalous measures of the Pahlavi’s regime) and the pressure of international human rights institutions and actions inside the country.

During the years 1967-71, Taleqani worked in various fields; among other things, he gave a speech in support of the Palestinian people on Eid al-Fitr (Day of Fast-breaking) and asked people to deposit the Fitriya (alms given of the Fast-breaking Day) for the Palestinian people. Taleqani's positions in the Freedom Movement were inclined to those of its passionate youths. For example, his support for leftist strugglers or his support for Jamal Abdul Nasser [Egyptian president 1956-70] was against those who considered Nasser’s government to be military and against freedom and democracy.

Taleqani’s commentary of the Qur’an was probably the basis for the formation of armed struggles among the Islamist forces. After the emergence of armed Islamic organizations having an armed approach, Taleqani gave them intellectual and financial support. The founders of the People’s Mojahedin Organization (PMK) of Iran had already gotten to know him by studying Taleqani’s commentary of the Qur’an. At the same time, it should not be overlooked that after his release from prison and on the eve of the Victory of the Islamic Revolution, he emphasized in his commentary discussions the necessity of consolidating religious foundations before political action.

In the Fall of 1971, Taleqani was arrested again and sentenced to three years of exile in the city of Zabul (southeast Iran) and sent there, but with the insistence of the independent judges of justice department, his sentence was changed to one and a half years of exile in Kerman. He returned to Tehran in May 1973 and after his release, he continued his relationship with secret armed organizations. As a result, he was arrested again in November 1975 and sentenced to ten years in prison. In prison, despite his previous support for the People's Mojahedin Organization (PMK), after the tendency of their leaders to Marxism and even the apostasy of some of them became public, he together with several famous clerics who were imprisoned, issued a statement on 20 March 1976 condemning their apostasy.

The events that occurred one after the other at the end of 1977 and in the first months of 1978, after the Pahlavi regime disrespected Imam Khomeini by publishing an article in Ettela’at newspaper, laid the groundwork for a nationwide revolution. Therefore, Muhammad Reza Pahlavi released all political prisoners on 30 October 1978 to prevent this revolutionary uprising. While Taleqani was in the public health department of Qasr Prison due to illness, he was released with the enthusiastic reception of the people of Tehran.

Immediately after he was released, he was included among the leaders of the Islamic Revolution, and his home in Pich Shemiran neighborhood (in Tehran) became an office for people and revolutionaries to refer to. Until Imam Khomeini’s return [from France] to Iran and his arrival in Tehran, that home was one of the main centers for advancing the process of the Revolution and popular movements, regardless of inclinations, and the political opinions of individuals. Part of the administration of sit-ins and strikes, as well as solving problems caused by lack of fuel and energy, were among the activities of this office. However, his office gradually became a place for the Iranian People's Mojahedin (PMK) of Iran and leftist groups and even some profiteerers.

Shortly after his release from prison, Taleqani tried to form a council of leaders and political groups on his own initiative. Sometime after the initial core of the Revolutionary Council was formed in Paris, on the beginning days of January 1977, he was elected as the head of the Revolutionary Council at the invitation of Imam Khomeini; however, his presence in the Revolutionary Council was independent and far from party affiliation. At this point of time, in order for him to prevent violence and extremism and retaliatory actions, Taleqani continuously issued statements, gave interviews and delivered speeches. He also asked Imam Khomeini, when he stayed in Neauphle-le-Château (a commune near Paris), to announce a general amnesty upon his arrival in Tehran, as taking model from the Prophet concerning his behavior in the Conquest of Mecca [in the year 10/632].

In the march on the Day of Tasu’a (10 December 1978), which was held at the invitation of the “Association of Struggling Clergy (Jame’e-ye Rouhaniyyat-e Mobarez)”, Taleqani also called the people to the march and accompanied them. Sitting in at Tehran University Mosque together with clerics, in protest against the action of the government of [then Prime Minister] Shapour Bakhtiar in closing Tehran’s International Mehrabad Airport to prevent Imam Khomeini from entering Iran, was one of his other activities in the days before the victory of the revolution.

Taleqani had views on some issues different those of other revolutionary clerics; among them, he did not consider the premiership of Bazergan to be good, despite his close friendship with him, due to his concern about its consequences. He also supported those members of the Organization of the Iranian People’s Mojahedin (PMK) who did not accept the change in the Organization’s ideology.

==After the Islamic Revolution==
After the victory of the Islamic Revolution, Taleqani was considered an important and influential figure inside and outside the country, and he was among those who were referred to by the leaders of the liberation and revolutionary movements. This fact, along with the pressure of his advocates, occasionally led to interference in the affairs of the interim government.

At the end of March 1979 he went at the head of a high-ranking delegation on behalf of the Interim Government, to Kurdistan Province, which was affected by unrest, and negotiated with the heads of groups and prominent personalities in the region. After that, an agreement was reached to form a popular council and it helped to calm the tense situation in that area. He also proposed the formation of local councils and sent representatives to the Provinces of Gonbad, Sistan-Baluchestan and other troubled areas.

On 13 April 1979, the incident of the arrest of his two children, Abu ’l Hasan and Mojtaba, and Mojtaba’s Palestinian wife, by the Islamic Revolution Committee, caused Taleqani distress, and he protested against what he called the arbitrariness of some revolutionary institutions and considered it to deprive the people of their freedom. He closed his offices and went to an unknown place for a few days. This issue ended with the official intervention of Imam Khomeini and Taleqani’s meeting with him in Qom, and then Taleqani’s enlightening speech at Faydiyya Seminary School. After disputes arose over how to prepare and approve the draft of the Constitution, it was decided at the suggestion of Taleqani, that an assembly consisting of a number of experts [whose members would be elected as the nation’s representatives] will examine the [draft of the] Constitution and submit the result to a referendum. Subsequently, he himself won the first vote of the people of Tehran Province in the election of the Assembly of Constitutional Experts, which was held to determine the representatives of each province, but due to the reasons, the most important of which was his death in the first days of the formation of the Assembly of Experts, he practically played no role in it.

The Theory of Council [i.e. the affairs of a group being by counsel among themselves] was the most significant and lasting aspect of Taleqani’s social and political thinking. He explained it on the basis of the Qur’anic verses and the Sunnah of the Infallibles and propounded it for the establishment of a desirable political system within the framework of religious traditions and teachings and in accordance with the cultural standards of the Iranian society, and defended it as a model of popular and democratic participation.

Shortly after the victory of the Islamic Revolution of Iran, Taleqani suggested to Imam Khomeini to revive the tradition of Friday prayers, which he had previously held in prison. Subsequetnly, he was appointed by the latter as the first Friday Prayer Leader in the Islamic Republic.

The first Friday prayer was held in [the courtyard of] Tehran University on 13 April 1979 with the presence of hundreds of thousands of prayig people. He also led the first Eid al-Fitr (Day of Fast-breaking) Prayer after the victory of the Islamic Revolution (in 1979) on 24 August at the University of Tehran and made important remarks regarding the issues of the day and criticizing the efforts and riots of the opponents and radical movements, and emphasized the leadership of Imam Khomeini.

The last Friday Prayer Held by Taleqani was on 7 September 1979 in Behesht Zahra Cemetery [in the vicinity of the capital] in the section dedicated to the martyrs of 17th of Shahrivar 1357 SAH (8 September 1978). In the sermons of that day, he asked the members of the parliament to review and pass the constitution and leave the work of the people to themselves by passing [the bill of] the councils (Ja’fari, Muhammad Mahdi, vol. 30, pp. 537-541).

==Accompanying Imam Khomeini==
The history of acquaintance of Ayatollah Taleqani with Imam Khomeini and knowing him dates back to the years of study in Qom Seminary and their early seminary education. Taleqani says in this regard:

“I have closely associated with him since I was a junior seminary student, and his thoughts, ideas and good records are clear and obvious to everyone. Grand Ayatollah Khomeini has had a special sanctity from the very beginning and has been and still is distinguished in every aspect.”

From the beginning of the courses of seminary education until the victory of the Islamic Revolution and then the death of Taleqani, these two knowledgeable, brave and struggling clerics have always been on the same path of true Islam, which is the path of uprising against tyranny and colonialism and the establishment of justice. They both always accompanied and supported one another in the forefront of the struggles of the Iranian nation, and Taleqani’s attitude towards Imam Khomeini in the forefront of the struggles of the Iranian nation has always been clear and unambiguous.

In the beginning of 1971, following the death of Grand Ayatollah Hakim in Najaf, which caused the religious and political officials and the general public to run around to identify the new Shi’a religious authority, and the Shah’s regime was determined to send a telegram to several clerics and religious authorities of that time in the city of Qom, with the purpose of signalizing one of them as a rival for Ayatollah Khomeini, Taleqani together with a group of religious intellectuals emphasized not only the issue of Imam Khomeini’s qualification for religious authority, but also his qualification for leadership, through speeches and distribution of various leaflets, which caused him to be imprisoned. After the death of Ayatollah Hakim, when Taleqani was asked about the religious authorities and the most-learned mujtahids to be followed [by the believers], he said:

“If you ask in terms of religious authority and legal knowledge (faqaha), all these people are clerics and jurisprudents of the Twelver Shi’a, but in terms of leadership, courage and attention to the issues of the day, Hajji Seyyed Ruhollah will surpass them all.”

These two reformist and mujahid clerics were in constant contact to eliminate the common enemy and reach the common goal. Ayatollah Martyr Doctor Beheshti says in this regard:

“Since the great leader of the [Islamic] Revolution, Imam Khomeini, supplied the Revolution with a new direction and spirit, there were meetings and relations between Ayatollah Taleqani and Imam Khomeini, I myself witnessed their meeting and relationship many times in those years”.

During the long period of Imam Khomeini’s exile to Iraq and then to France, that Taleqani was either in prison or in exile, or kept under strict surveillance by the security officers the SAVAK, none of these factors could interrupt his relationship with the leadership of the Movement.

The following letter written by Imam Khomeini in 1975 in response to Hajji Shaykh Muhammad Kiyani-nezhad’s letter, shows the friendly and confidential relationship of these two great mujahids in those years of maximum political suffocation:

“I received your precious letter from Makkah. It is hoped that your sincere rituals be accepted by Allah, Glorified is He, and you will be successful in guidance. As for going on pilgrimage to Makkah in the coming years, there is no harm with it considering the mentioned situation [explained in your letter]. As for the religious funds that are given to Hojjat ul-Islam Taleqani to be distributed, it is good to consult him and do whatever he deems appropriate. As for sending money to him, there is no harm in it because he is authorized [to receive it]. Please remember me in your prayers.”

As it is understood from the brief text of this letter, the importance of the matter is not merely the jurisprudential authorization, but also the approval and agreement in the process of the struggle, which Imam Khomeini considers Taleqani to be authorized in receiving and spending religious funds. The importance of this letter is due to the fact that at that time, some ignorant scholars and clerics considered Taleqani’s financial and intellectual aid to some anti-regime religious groups as wrong and did not consider any aid to them permissible. The government agents also spread widespread rumors and propaganda against him. Taleqani believed that any government that is formed in Iran should be within the framework of the struggles of the Iranian nation under the leadership of Imam Khomeini.

In the case of the arrest of Taleqani’s children, which led to the closure of Taleqani’s offices in Tehran, after Seyyed Ahmad Khomeini (the Imam’s son) met with him and informed him of the Imam’s concern for the presuming of foreign and deviant agents on this issue for causing division and opportunism, Taleqani immediately had his offices opened and, while returning to Tehran, emphasized the leadership of Imam Khomeini and said:

“The world has accepted the leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini, and not merely us.”

In October 1978, when the Revolution was in a critical situation, agents of Pahlavi’s Royal Court and the SAVAK released Taleqani from prison in order to signalize his character (rivalling that of Imam Khomeini) and divert the Revolution from its original path, but Taleqani who was aware of this conspiracy, released a statement and emphasized his support for the Revolution under the leadership of Imam Khomeini, and thereby intensified the Movement of the revolutionary masses and thwarted the SAVAK conspiracy.

Ayatollah Taleqani, in his speech on July 21, 1979 in Baharestan Square (in Tehran) expressed his stance towards Imam Khomeini as the following:

“The Leader (Ayatollah Khomeini) is so much decisive and gifted with faith and goodwill so that you can rarely find a leader like him. Some groups complain that we do not have a way, they (indeed) complain for no good reason. A listening ear (alluding to: the Qur’an 9:61) listens to the words as it was in the time of the Prophet (s.`a.w.) and then orders what is correct and enforceable. Sometimes, when I go (from the Capital) to the city of Qom [where Imam Khomeini resides], just for a political issue, the newspapers make a controversy and make big headlines. Yes, it is a case of exchanging opinions. Whenever I feel despair, (I go to meet him) I see determination, trust and sincerity from such a leader. If we don’t appreciate it, as a result of this ingratitude, we will be punished by Allah (in the Hereafter).”

Therefore, the positions, interviews, and documents of Taleqani left behind, all show his support for the leadership of the Islamic Revolution. On the other hand, Imam Khomeini’s position and opinion about Taleqani expressed on various occasions are unique by themselves.

(for instance,) In his speech after Taleqani’s death in Faydiya Seminary School, Imam Khomeini addressed the people and said:

“(Indeed) We have lost a brother, our nation has lost a father, and Islam has lost a warrior (mujahid).”

During the meeting with Taleqani’s family, he also said:

“The late Taleqani was honest. He thought honestly and acted in all honesty. He was not deviated to the left or right; nor was he westoxicated (enamored of the west) or eastoxicated (enamored of the east). He was Islamic, he (just) followed the teachings of Islam, and he was useful for a nation, and his departure is a loss (for us)” (cf. Azizi, Heshmatullah, pp. 215-220).

==His Death==
Ayatollah Taleqani died in the evening of 10 September (1979). His body was buried next to the graves of the martyrs of the Islamic Revolution in Behesht Zahra Cemetery [in the vicinity of the capital] after a mass funeral procession. Imam Khomeini in his message of condolence on his death, considered him as the great Companion of the Prophet (s.`a.w.) Abu Dharr al-Ghifari for Islam and emphasized that his eloquent tongue was as efficient as the sword of [Imam `Ali’s disciple and army commander] Malik Ashtar al-Nakha’i (Ja’fari, Muhammad Mahdi, vol. 30, p. 541).

==His works==
Ayatollah Taleqani’s works and writings are a diverse and valuable collection, including authorship, commentary, translation, essays and speeches, which were written in the most difficult time and place conditions, in travel and presence, in exile and in prison, with great effort and struggle. Some of his works are as follows:

1. “Partovi az Qur’an (A ray of the Qur’an – a commentary on the Qur’an)”: This commentary of the Qur'an, which is considered the most important work of Ayatollah Taleqani, was written during almost sixteen years from 1963 to 1979, under Taleqani's most difficult conditions of the mosque, prison or exile. In the opinion of many Islamic researchers, this unfinished, small-volume, but rich commentary brought about a change in the knowledge of the Qur'an and a movement in the educated young generation, and it was highly regarded in the religious, scientific and exegetical community.

The most important message of this commentary, representing the thought of Ayatollah Taleqani is that the Qur'an is a book of guidance, not a book of scientific, philosophical, legal analysis and the like. This work caused Ayatollah Taleqani to be mentioned as one of the pioneers of the movement of returning to the Qur'an in Iran. In fact, in this work, he was influenced by the movement of elders and reformers such as Shaykh Muhammad `Abduh [1849-1905] and Rashid Rida [1865-1935] (pupils of Sayyid Jamal al-Din Asadabadi [1838-97]) and the founders of the movement of returning to the Qur'an. This work, which is [considered as] a religious, scientific, mystical, historical and social encyclopedia with a new method, has been, published in six volumes by Sherkat-e Sahami Enteshar (lit. joint-stock company Publishers).

Concerning the value and importance of this commentary Hojjat-ul-Islam, S. Mahmoud Du'aei, a high official in the Imam Khomeini's office said:

“In Najaf I had presented the book “Partovi az Qur’an (A ray of the Qur’an)” to Imam Khomeini to study. After some time, I heard his elder son Martyr Seyyed Mustafa saying that the Imam emphatically had recommended him to study it for sure and to draw inspiration from it both in the methodology and the understandings and apply them in his own work on the commentary of the Qur'an. The Imam's recommendation to study this book and his absolute approval for it was so much serious that surprised his son due to the fact that the Imam had a cautious manner with regard to the individuals and their writings”. (Azizi, Heshmatullah, pp. 37-38).

2. Governance in the eyes of Islam: After the coup d'état on 19 August 1953, when the atmosphere of silence and suffocation once again cast a shadow on Iranian society, Ayatollah Taleqani, who wrote most of his works according to the requirements of the age, attempted to edit and publish a valuable and forgotten book. Allama [Mirza Husayn] Naini's Tanbih al-Ummah wa Tanzih al-Millah (lit. awakening the community and purification of the religion) was written during the [Iranian] Constitutional Movement (1905-9). Taleqani revived this book after it was abandoned for a long time, and was likely close to being put into oblivion. In fact, after Taleqani's work, this book became known and received attention. Taleqani did not revise the original text of the book, but rather he wrote a very good introduction and explanations on it.

According to Taleqani, the general purpose of this book was:

“To express the state and conditions of the governance from the point of view of Islam and Shi'ism... This book is an argumentative jurisprudence for the researchers, and a book of practical laws of Islam on social tasks for the common people”.

Taleqani's intention for reviving and introducing this precious work was to condemn the authoritarian governments, and exposing their nature and also to encourage the clergy to interfere in the politics and fate of society (ibid., pp. 36-37).

3. Translation and commentary of 81 sermons from Nahj al-Balagha: This book was published in 1947. Later, with the permission of Ayatollah Taleqani, Seyyed Muhammad Mahdi Ja'fari continued his translation and research [employing the same method] and published it in five volumes in a book under the title of “Partovi az Nahj al-Balagha (A Ray of Nahj al-Balagha)”.

4. Translation of the book al-Imam `Ali ibn Abi Talib: He translated and published the first volume of the book al-Imam `Ali ibn Abi Talib authored by the famous [Egyptian] scholar `Abd al-Fattah `Abd al-Maqsoud in 1956-7, but later he failed to translate the rest of the book due to political-social troubles, imprisonment and exile.

In 1970, Mr. Jafari was suggested to translate the next volumes of this book, which was valuable due to its importance in proximation between the Sunni and Shia denominations. He translated the second volume under the supervision and guidance of Ayatollah Taleqani, and the next volumes independently. The whole work was published in eight volumes by Sherkat-e Sahami-ye Enteshar (the joint stock company).

In fact, Ayatollah Taleqani recommends and emphasizes to the researchers and intellectuals of the society by doing these two translations the field of research and the necessity of knowing Imam `Ali (a.s.), the Commander of the Faithful and his government.

5. Islam and Ownership: In addition to religious, political and cultural issues, Taleqani paid special attention to economic issues by raising the topic of ownership in the Islamic Student Association during 1950-2 and writing the book “Islam and Ownership”. In this book, while examining and rejecting the capitalist and socialist economic systems that at that time had divided the world into two poles of socialism and communism, Taleqani cited Islamic and Qur'anic jurisprudential foundations, and challenged this important issue in the Islamic jurisprudence, and established the Islamic economic system. In fact, by writing this book, for the first time in the history and jurisprudence of the Shi'a, Taleqani opened a chapter in the Islamic economy and the limits of ownership; and in the midst of the propaganda of anti-Islamic groups, he confronted [indeed] the socialism and capitalism in the East and the West [Translated into English by A. Jabbari and F. Rajaee. Lexington, Kentucky: Mazda Publishers, 1983.] (ibid., pp. 35-36).

6. We are going to God, or the memoirs of the Hajj pilgrimage: This pilgrimage took place in 1952 after a few months of Taleqani's participation in the Karachi Muslim People's Conference. He first went to Iraq and visited the Holy Shrines of the Imams and the cultural centers of that country, and then travelled to Syria and visited the Holy Shrines there. After that he went to Beirut (Lebanon) and from there to Jeddah (Saudi Arabia). At that time, the Iranians were suffering from much difficulties; because the national government of Dr. Mossadeq was in office and the governments who were under influence of British policy were highly restrict to Iran. In this informative travelogue, Ayatollah Taleqani complains about the companions more than about the officials of Saudi Arabia; that is the companions who are ignorant or negligent about the spirit of Hajj, disregard the unity of Muslims and suffer from lack of knowledge about the today's world politics and neglect the spiritual issues. This travelogue is a very clear and expressive picture of the political, social and cultural situation in the Middle East at that period of time.

7. Centralization and decentralization of religious authority and fatwa:

After the death of the exclusive authority of the entire Shi'a world, Ayatollah Borujerdi (in 1961), some scholars and religious thinkers in Tehran and Qom thought of holding a seminar to discuss authority and its centralization or decentralization, that is, being the religious authority as a council or being it as an individual. This seminar was not held for one reason or another, however, each of the participants-to-be wrote an article that were published under the title of A Discussion about Religious Authority and Clergy by Sherkat-e Sahami-ye Enteshar Publishers (Enteshar Joint-stock Company).

According to Hamid Algar (Encyclopedia of Islam under the article “Islah (Reform)”, it is perhaps the most effective and informative religious writing written in Persian since the publication of the book Tanbih al-Umma. One of its important articles was the above-mentioned title by Ayatollah Taleqani, who concluded after a historical, political and jurisprudential discussion that considering the political and cultural situation of the world, it is better to have the religious authority in the form of a council and that the fatwa (verdict) to be issued based on the expertise of the members of the Religious Authority Council.

8. Religious, social, moral, philosophical, educational discourses.

9. Explanation of the Mission for maintaining justice: including six speeches in the Hedayat Mosque in November and December 1978 (ibid., pp. 34-35).

10. Sermons of Friday Prayer and Eid al-Fitr (Day of Fast-breaking)

11. The future of mankind and directions for a bright future

12. Hijab, the woman's personality

13. A discussion about religious authority and the clergy

14. Freedom and tyranny

15. Speech on Ashura

16. And More…

==Bibliography==
1. Azizi, Heshmatullah, Life and Struggles of Ayatollah Taleqani, Tehran, Islamic Revolution Documentation Center, 1st edition, summer 20098.

2. Mir Abol-Qasemi, Seyyed Muhammad Husayn, “Seyyed Abol-Hasan Taleqani”, in Danehsname-ye Jahan-e Islam (Encyclopedia of the Muslim World), vol. 30, pp. 535-7, under the supervision of Gholam Ali Haddad Adel, , Islamic Encyclopedia Foundation, 1st edition, Tehran, 2021.

3. Ja'fari, Muhammad Mahdi, “Seyyed Mahmoud Taleqani”, in Danehsname-ye Jahan-e Islam (Encyclopedia of the Muslim World), vol. 30, pp. 537-41, under the supervision of Gholam Ali Haddad Adel, Islamic Encyclopedia Foundation, 1st edition, Tehran, 2021.

4. Mollai Tawani, Ali Reza, Political Biography of Ayatollah Taleqani, Nay Publishers, 2nd edition, Tehran, 2010.

5. Ja'fari, Muhammad Mahdi, 1389, Ayatollah Taleqani va Tafsir Partovi az Qur'an (Ay. Taleqani and the Commentary: a ray from the light of the Qur'an), in collaboration with Akbar Thaqfiyan and Ali Ojbi, Khane-ye Ketab, second edition, Tehran, [2010].

[[fa:طالقانی، سید محمود]]
[[ar:السيد محمود الطالقاني]]

Seyyed Mahmoud Taleqani

2024-06-10T04:42:17Z

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Seyyed Mahmoud Taleqani (1910-79), known as Abu Dharr of these times, [was a] Shi’a scholar, orator, Qur'an commentator, writer and contemporary Iranian struggler.

==His Family==
Taleqani family in Taleqan region is among famous seyyeds (descendants of the Prophet). Mahmoud’s great grandfather, Seyyed Ala' ud-din, descended from Imam Muhammad al-Baqir (a.s.). His grandfather, the late Seyyed Agha Mahmoud Taleqani, was one of the famous clerics of Taleqan, but little information is available about him. His grave is located in the cemetery of Geliyard village.

The late Seyyed Agha [Mahmoud] (grandfather of Ayatollah Taleqani) had two sons and six daughters. His eldest son was Seyyed Abul-Hasan, father of Ayatollah Taleqani. Agha Seyyed Abul-hasan was born in 1861, in the village of Geliyard [near the city of] Taleqan. After completing his primary [seminary] education up to the level of “Sutouh” in Taleqan, Qazvin and Isfahan, he left for Iraq to continue his studies. He studied ten years with the greatest authority of the age, Mirza Hasan Shirazi, and seven years in Karbala and under Seyyed Isma’il al-Sadr.

During his stay in Najaf, he learned the profession of watchmaking, by which he used to make a living until the end of his life. After returning to Iran, he started teaching at Marvi Seminary School in Tehran. The late Ayatollah Abul-hasan Taleqani lived in a humble room in the Qanatabad neighborhood of Tehran, and politically, he was a friend and companion of the late [Seyyed Hasan] Modarres and actively participated in the political meetings organized by Modarres (Azizi, Heshmatullah, pp. 19-20).

He died on 28 December 1931in Tehran. His body was buried with great splendor in the shrine of Hazrat `Abdul Azim al-Hasani, and from there, according to his will, it was transferred to Najaf and buried in Wadi al-Salam Cemetery (Mir abul-Qasemi, Seyyed Mohammad Husayn, vol. 30, p. 536).

On the death of Ayatollah Taleqani, Imam Khomeini said in his condolence message about him: “May God’s mercy be upon his noble father who excelled all the pious” (Azizi, Heshmatullah, p. 22).

A few small essays have been left by Seyyed Abul-hasan Taleqani, which include: “Kimiya-ye Hasti (alchemy of the existence)”, Resale-ye Ethna-Ashariyyeh (an essay on the Twelver Shi’a), Siyasat-e Husayni (Imam Husayn-oriented policy), Muhakeme-ye Hijab (The Trial of the Islamic dress code) and the exposition of the late Shaykh Muhammad Husayn Isfahani’s Seminary letures (Mir abol-Qasemi, Seyyed Muhammad Husayn, vol. 30, p. 536).

==His Birth==
Seyyed Mahmoud Taleqani was born on 4 April 1911, in the village of Giliyard near the city of Taleqan, to the second wife of Seyyed Abul-Hasan (Azizi, Heshmatullah, pp. 22-23).

==His Education==
He was sent to school at the age of five, and spent two years studying the Qur’an and learning calligraphy and writing in the village of Gelyard. He studied the Qur’an in the first year under the guidance of Mullah Seyyed Taqi Orazani, and spent the second year reading and writing under Shaykh Karbalai Ali Varkashi, as well as studying the book Moush va Gorbeh (the versified fable of the mice and the cat) by Obayd Zakani [Iranian satirist, d. 772/1331], which according to the common practice of those schools, was popular and was taught along with such books as “Golestan” by Sa’di, “Kalileh and Demneh”.

Seyyed Mahmoud went to Tehran at the age of seven and pursued his primary education at the Mulla Reza School located in Amin us-Sultan Square in Tehran and learned Arabic grammar (morphology and syntax) until the age of ten. With his father’s suggestion and guidance, he left for Qom to continue his education and settled in Radawiyya Seminary School. After some time, he was admitted to Faydiyya Seminary School (Malai Tavani, Ali Reza, pp. 22-23).

==His Masters in Qom==
In Qom, he studied al-Rawda al-Bahiyya fi Sharh al-Lum`a al-Dimashqiya (a voluminous textbook in Shi’a jurisprudence at an intermediate level) with Ayatollah Shahab-uddin Mar’ashi [Najafi], al-Mutawwal (by al-Taftazani, in Arabic rhetoric) with Adib Tehrani and studied for a period of time with Ayatollah Seyyed Muhammad Hujjat. Together with Shaykh Muhammad Taqi Eshraqi and Mirza Khalil Kamarei, who were considered intellectual scholars at that time due to the teaching of philosophy and wisdom, it was widely published. As he studied under Mirza Khalil Kamarei and completed [Mulla Hadi] Sabzevari’s “al-Manzuma” (in philosophy). Apart from this, he held a discussion and commentary session with Shaykh Muhammad Taqi Eshraqi on Thursdays in his home, where many students and scholars attended (ibid., pp. 26-27).

==His Masters in Najaf==
After some time, he went to the [seminary] of Najaf and studied with Shaykh Muhammad Husayn Isfahani [also known as Kompani] and Agha Diya’ ud-Din al-`Iraqi. He returned to Qom from Najaf and after completing his seminary education and obtaining scientific and narrative authorization from his masters, he settled in Tehran around 1938.

==His Scientific Propagation Activity==
In his childhood and youth, Taleqani witnessed Reza Shah’s tyranny, especially his open confrontation with the religion as an institution as well as the religious people, and this situation put so much pressure on him so much so that, according to him, pains and diseases were caused by it and remained with him until the end of his life. His concern in that situation was more than anything else, the careful study of the verses of the Qur’an, Nahj al-Balagha, as well as the history and lifestyle (sira) of the Holy Prophet (s.`a.w.) and the Imams (a.s.). He gradually recognized the goal and destination in terms of social duty.

Taleqani believed that the enemies were trying to exclude the Qur’an from the lives of the Muslims and it seemed that the believers were also used to living without the Qur’an. He gradually came to the conclusion that religious knowledge, after the Qur’an, should be taken from Nahj al-Balagha, and that this book had a very significant role in opening the way and finding answers to religious and social issues.

Therefore, he started translating Nahj al-Balagha and with the cooperation of his teacher, Ayatollah Mirza Khalil Kamarei (1897-1984), he prepared a project for the interpretation and translation of Nahj al-Balagha and after that he used all his power to revive the attention to the Qur’an and Nahj al-Balagha in the lives of Muslims.

Since 1939, Taleqani, by inviting a group of young people, secretly held exegesis sessions in homes and gave exegesis of the Qur’an on a mobile basis in some less-known mosques and schools. Also, in the same year, he was imprisoned for a few days following a conflict with Reza Shah’s agents.

==His Political Struggles==
In August 1941, Taleqani established the Islamic Center, where he interpreted the Qur’an. The method of the Islamic Center was to publish the teachings of the Qur’an and the Sunnah through lectures and the publication of a student magazine. This magazine was banned after publishing eleven issues. People like Mehdi Bazargan (1907-94)) and Seyyed Mojtaba Nawwab Safavi (1924-55) participated in these meetings.

Taleqani was one of the active lecturers and collaborators of the Islamic Council of Technical Faculty of Tehran University, the Islamic Council of Engineering, the Islamic Council of Religion and Knowledge, the Teacher Training Institute, the Organization of Devotees of Islam, and the Muslim League. In these groups and organizations, in addition to publishing and explaining religious teachings, he confronted the spreading trend of Marxism and materialism, and he was probably the first cleric who gave exegetical lectures to the university students. Later, based on the mentioned records, Bazargan introduced Taleqani as the pioneer of the “New Islamic Movement”.

The announcement of the republic by the democratic sect of Azerbaijan [in northwest Iran] made many people worried about the interference of foreigners and the domination of the supporters of Marxism in Iran. In the meantime, the Muslim League, which was founded by a group of clerics in Tehran as a fight against irreligion, sent Taleqani, who was speaking on the radio against the communists at that time, as his representative in the army to Azerbaijan Province to encourage the soldiers and closely monitor the activity of the army and to provide a report.

In the years 1948-9, instead of mobile meetings, Taleqani concentrated his activities in the Hedayat Mosque on [the former] Istanbul Street (now Islamic Republic Street), which at that time was a symbol of being fond of modernism disregarding the religious culture. Very soon, his sessions of the commentary on the Qur’an on Friday Eves attracted the attention of the university students, young people and the public believers, and this mosque became one of the most important bases for the spread of Islamic culture and campaigns.

With the commencement of the nationalization movement of Iran’s oil industry, Taleqani joined this movement. He was a candidate for the city of Chalus people’s representative in the 17th Parliament, but due to the annulment of the elections in that region, he did not enter the parliament. Also, with his encouragement, Ayatollah Muhammad Taqi Khwansari issued a fatwa and supported the nationalization of the oil industry. After the coup d'état on 19 August 1953, his Qur’an commentary sessions and his lectures on the pulpit of the mosques gradually took on a political hue. He cooperated with the National Resistance Movement, and to encourage Muslim activists to combat against the tyranny and the dependent royal government, edited, annotated and published the book “Tanbih al-Umma wa Tanzih al-Milla (lit. awakening the community and sanctifying the religion)” compiled by Ayatollah Shaykh Muhammad Husayn Naini (1860-1936) with an introduction and explanatory footnotes.

Taleqani was one of the supporters of the Jam’iyat-e Fadayian-e Islam (The Devotees [or self-sacrificers] of Islam Association) and had close relations with its founder S. Mojtaba Navvab Safavi (1924-56) and approved the positions and actions of that association. He considered the members of that association as faithful and enthusiastic youths who removed the obstacles on the way to the nationalization of the oil industry, and when they were wanted (by the regime), he gave them refuge, and because of this, he was arrested and detained for several days. The Fada’iyan Association also published Ayatollah Taleqani’s “Islam va melkiyyat (Islam and Ownership)” in their publication “Nabard-e Mellat (the nation’s battle)”. “Islam and Ownership” was one of the first efforts of the Shi’a world to outline an acceptable economic system from the point of view of Islam and distinguish it from capitalism and socialism along with some criticisms against those two schools.

In the 1950s, Taleqani traveled to Muslim countries such as Jordan and Egypt once or twice and participated in several conferences and became familiar from nearby (i.e. was closely involved) with the most important issues of Islamic countries, including the occupation of Palestine and the crimes of the Zionists and the establishment of the aggressing regime of Israel, as well as the idea of proximation between Islamic denominations. In the situation where the then government of Iran had recognized the Zionist regime as a de facto government, Taleqani enlightened the audience about the defense of the rights of the Palestinian people.

Following the formation of the Second National Front (Jebhe-ye Melli) in 1960, Taleqani was elected as one of the members of the Central Council [of the Front], but due to disagreements with some of the Front’s leaders on Islamic and religious issues, he founded - together with Mehdi Bazargan and Yadullah Sahabi - the Iranian Freedom Movement (Nehzat-e Azadi-ye Iran). However, he continued to accompany the Front.

On 19 July 1961, he was arrested for a short time due to holding a ceremony for those killed in the 21 July 1952 uprising (Qiyam-e 30 Tir). After the protests of clerics against the contents of the regulations passed by the government of Asadullah Alam (then Prime Minister 1962-4) regarding State and Provincial Associations (anjomanha-ye eyalati va velayati) in the Fall of 1962 (based on which the elected candidates were exempted from taking an oath by the Qur’an), he tried to establish a link between the religious authorities as well as the clerics and members of the Freedom Movement.

In January 1963, during the referendum of the [so-called] White Revolution, Taleqani together with the leaders of the National Front and the Iranian Freedom Movement were arrested and imprisoned for a few months due to their protest against this action. In the days of Muharram 1383 AH (June 1963), he gave speeches in the Hedayat Mosque exposing the nature of the Shah’s regime and the Zionists and criticizing the White Revolution program. For this reason, after the incident of 5 June 1963 (15 Khordad 1342), he was arrested and after a long trial in a military court, he was sentenced to ten years in prison. His courage, frankness, broad-mindedness and faith were very impressive in that court. In the first session of the trial, he announced that the trial was illegal and in the last session, he addressed the audience and recited verses from Surat al-Fajr (Qur’an 89). Taleqani used to give speeches in prison and had a Qur'an commentary class and even held Festival prayers on Eid al-Fitr (the Day of Fast-breaking). In addition, his good behavior as a cleric among the prisoners had lasting effects and fruits. Taleqani was finally released in October 1967, following the revelations of Iranians abroad (about the scandalous measures of the Pahlavi’s regime) and the pressure of international human rights institutions and actions inside the country.

During the years 1967-71, Taleqani worked in various fields; among other things, he gave a speech in support of the Palestinian people on Eid al-Fitr (Day of Fast-breaking) and asked people to deposit the Fitriya (alms given of the Fast-breaking Day) for the Palestinian people. Taleqani's positions in the Freedom Movement were inclined to those of its passionate youths. For example, his support for leftist strugglers or his support for Jamal Abdul Nasser [Egyptian president 1956-70] was against those who considered Nasser’s government to be military and against freedom and democracy.

Taleqani’s commentary of the Qur’an was probably the basis for the formation of armed struggles among the Islamist forces. After the emergence of armed Islamic organizations having an armed approach, Taleqani gave them intellectual and financial support. The founders of the People’s Mojahedin Organization (PMK) of Iran had already gotten to know him by studying Taleqani’s commentary of the Qur’an. At the same time, it should not be overlooked that after his release from prison and on the eve of the Victory of the Islamic Revolution, he emphasized in his commentary discussions the necessity of consolidating religious foundations before political action.

In the Fall of 1971, Taleqani was arrested again and sentenced to three years of exile in the city of Zabul (southeast Iran) and sent there, but with the insistence of the independent judges of justice department, his sentence was changed to one and a half years of exile in Kerman. He returned to Tehran in May 1973 and after his release, he continued his relationship with secret armed organizations. As a result, he was arrested again in November 1975 and sentenced to ten years in prison. In prison, despite his previous support for the People's Mojahedin Organization (PMK), after the tendency of their leaders to Marxism and even the apostasy of some of them became public, he together with several famous clerics who were imprisoned, issued a statement on 20 March 1976 condemning their apostasy.

The events that occurred one after the other at the end of 1977 and in the first months of 1978, after the Pahlavi regime disrespected Imam Khomeini by publishing an article in Ettela’at newspaper, laid the groundwork for a nationwide revolution. Therefore, Muhammad Reza Pahlavi released all political prisoners on 30 October 1978 to prevent this revolutionary uprising. While Taleqani was in the public health department of Qasr Prison due to illness, he was released with the enthusiastic reception of the people of Tehran.

Immediately after he was released, he was included among the leaders of the Islamic Revolution, and his home in Pich Shemiran neighborhood (in Tehran) became an office for people and revolutionaries to refer to. Until Imam Khomeini’s return [from France] to Iran and his arrival in Tehran, that home was one of the main centers for advancing the process of the Revolution and popular movements, regardless of inclinations, and the political opinions of individuals. Part of the administration of sit-ins and strikes, as well as solving problems caused by lack of fuel and energy, were among the activities of this office. However, his office gradually became a place for the Iranian People's Mojahedin (PMK) of Iran and leftist groups and even some profiteerers.

Shortly after his release from prison, Taleqani tried to form a council of leaders and political groups on his own initiative. Sometime after the initial core of the Revolutionary Council was formed in Paris, on the beginning days of January 1977, he was elected as the head of the Revolutionary Council at the invitation of Imam Khomeini; however, his presence in the Revolutionary Council was independent and far from party affiliation. At this point of time, in order for him to prevent violence and extremism and retaliatory actions, Taleqani continuously issued statements, gave interviews and delivered speeches. He also asked Imam Khomeini, when he stayed in Neauphle-le-Château (a commune near Paris), to announce a general amnesty upon his arrival in Tehran, as taking model from the Prophet concerning his behavior in the Conquest of Mecca [in the year 10/632].

In the march on the Day of Tasu’a (10 December 1978), which was held at the invitation of the “Association of Struggling Clergy (Jame’e-ye Rouhaniyyat-e Mobarez)”, Taleqani also called the people to the march and accompanied them. Sitting in at Tehran University Mosque together with clerics, in protest against the action of the government of [then Prime Minister] Shapour Bakhtiar in closing Tehran’s International Mehrabad Airport to prevent Imam Khomeini from entering Iran, was one of his other activities in the days before the victory of the revolution.

Taleqani had views on some issues different those of other revolutionary clerics; among them, he did not consider the premiership of Bazergan to be good, despite his close friendship with him, due to his concern about its consequences. He also supported those members of the Organization of the Iranian People’s Mojahedin (PMK) who did not accept the change in the Organization’s ideology.

==After the Islamic Revolution==
After the victory of the Islamic Revolution, Taleqani was considered an important and influential figure inside and outside the country, and he was among those who were referred to by the leaders of the liberation and revolutionary movements. This fact, along with the pressure of his advocates, occasionally led to interference in the affairs of the interim government.

At the end of March 1979 he went at the head of a high-ranking delegation on behalf of the Interim Government, to Kurdistan Province, which was affected by unrest, and negotiated with the heads of groups and prominent personalities in the region. After that, an agreement was reached to form a popular council and it helped to calm the tense situation in that area. He also proposed the formation of local councils and sent representatives to the Provinces of Gonbad, Sistan-Baluchestan and other troubled areas.

On 13 April 1979, the incident of the arrest of his two children, Abu ’l Hasan and Mojtaba, and Mojtaba’s Palestinian wife, by the Islamic Revolution Committee, caused Taleqani distress, and he protested against what he called the arbitrariness of some revolutionary institutions and considered it to deprive the people of their freedom. He closed his offices and went to an unknown place for a few days. This issue ended with the official intervention of Imam Khomeini and Taleqani’s meeting with him in Qom, and then Taleqani’s enlightening speech at Faydiyya Seminary School. After disputes arose over how to prepare and approve the draft of the Constitution, it was decided at the suggestion of Taleqani, that an assembly consisting of a number of experts [whose members would be elected as the nation’s representatives] will examine the [draft of the] Constitution and submit the result to a referendum. Subsequently, he himself won the first vote of the people of Tehran Province in the election of the Assembly of Constitutional Experts, which was held to determine the representatives of each province, but due to the reasons, the most important of which was his death in the first days of the formation of the Assembly of Experts, he practically played no role in it.

The Theory of Council [i.e. the affairs of a group being by counsel among themselves] was the most significant and lasting aspect of Taleqani’s social and political thinking. He explained it on the basis of the Qur’anic verses and the Sunnah of the Infallibles and propounded it for the establishment of a desirable political system within the framework of religious traditions and teachings and in accordance with the cultural standards of the Iranian society, and defended it as a model of popular and democratic participation.

Shortly after the victory of the Islamic Revolution of Iran, Taleqani suggested to Imam Khomeini to revive the tradition of Friday prayers, which he had previously held in prison. Subsequetnly, he was appointed by the latter as the first Friday Prayer Leader in the Islamic Republic.

The first Friday prayer was held in [the courtyard of] Tehran University on 13 April 1979 with the presence of hundreds of thousands of prayig people. He also led the first Eid al-Fitr (Day of Fast-breaking) Prayer after the victory of the Islamic Revolution (in 1979) on 24 August at the University of Tehran and made important remarks regarding the issues of the day and criticizing the efforts and riots of the opponents and radical movements, and emphasized the leadership of Imam Khomeini.

The last Friday Prayer Held by Taleqani was on 7 September 1979 in Behesht Zahra Cemetery [in the vicinity of the capital] in the section dedicated to the martyrs of 17th of Shahrivar 1357 SAH (8 September 1978). In the sermons of that day, he asked the members of the parliament to review and pass the constitution and leave the work of the people to themselves by passing [the bill of] the councils (Ja’fari, Muhammad Mahdi, vol. 30, pp. 537-541).

==Accompanying Imam Khomeini==
The history of acquaintance of Ayatollah Taleqani with Imam Khomeini and knowing him dates back to the years of study in Qom Seminary and their early seminary education. Taleqani says in this regard:

“I have closely associated with him since I was a junior seminary student, and his thoughts, ideas and good records are clear and obvious to everyone. Grand Ayatollah Khomeini has had a special sanctity from the very beginning and has been and still is distinguished in every aspect.”

From the beginning of the courses of seminary education until the victory of the Islamic Revolution and then the death of Taleqani, these two knowledgeable, brave and struggling clerics have always been on the same path of true Islam, which is the path of uprising against tyranny and colonialism and the establishment of justice. They both always accompanied and supported one another in the forefront of the struggles of the Iranian nation, and Taleqani’s attitude towards Imam Khomeini in the forefront of the struggles of the Iranian nation has always been clear and unambiguous.

In the beginning of 1971, following the death of Grand Ayatollah Hakim in Najaf, which caused the religious and political officials and the general public to run around to identify the new Shi’a religious authority, and the Shah’s regime was determined to send a telegram to several clerics and religious authorities of that time in the city of Qom, with the purpose of signalizing one of them as a rival for Ayatollah Khomeini, Taleqani together with a group of religious intellectuals emphasized not only the issue of Imam Khomeini’s qualification for religious authority, but also his qualification for leadership, through speeches and distribution of various leaflets, which caused him to be imprisoned. After the death of Ayatollah Hakim, when Taleqani was asked about the religious authorities and the most-learned mujtahids to be followed [by the believers], he said:

“If you ask in terms of religious authority and legal knowledge (faqaha), all these people are clerics and jurisprudents of the Twelver Shi’a, but in terms of leadership, courage and attention to the issues of the day, Hajji Seyyed Ruhollah will surpass them all.”

These two reformist and mujahid clerics were in constant contact to eliminate the common enemy and reach the common goal. Ayatollah Martyr Doctor Beheshti says in this regard:

“Since the great leader of the [Islamic] Revolution, Imam Khomeini, supplied the Revolution with a new direction and spirit, there were meetings and relations between Ayatollah Taleqani and Imam Khomeini, I myself witnessed their meeting and relationship many times in those years”.

During the long period of Imam Khomeini’s exile to Iraq and then to France, that Taleqani was either in prison or in exile, or kept under strict surveillance by the security officers the SAVAK, none of these factors could interrupt his relationship with the leadership of the Movement.

The following letter written by Imam Khomeini in 1975 in response to Hajji Shaykh Muhammad Kiyani-nezhad’s letter, shows the friendly and confidential relationship of these two great mujahids in those years of maximum political suffocation:

“I received your precious letter from Makkah. It is hoped that your sincere rituals be accepted by Allah, Glorified is He, and you will be successful in guidance. As for going on pilgrimage to Makkah in the coming years, there is no harm with it considering the mentioned situation [explained in your letter]. As for the religious funds that are given to Hojjat ul-Islam Taleqani to be distributed, it is good to consult him and do whatever he deems appropriate. As for sending money to him, there is no harm in it because he is authorized [to receive it]. Please remember me in your prayers.”

As it is understood from the brief text of this letter, the importance of the matter is not merely the jurisprudential authorization, but also the approval and agreement in the process of the struggle, which Imam Khomeini considers Taleqani to be authorized in receiving and spending religious funds. The importance of this letter is due to the fact that at that time, some ignorant scholars and clerics considered Taleqani’s financial and intellectual aid to some anti-regime religious groups as wrong and did not consider any aid to them permissible. The government agents also spread widespread rumors and propaganda against him. Taleqani believed that any government that is formed in Iran should be within the framework of the struggles of the Iranian nation under the leadership of Imam Khomeini.

In the case of the arrest of Taleqani’s children, which led to the closure of Taleqani’s offices in Tehran, after Seyyed Ahmad Khomeini (the Imam’s son) met with him and informed him of the Imam’s concern for the presuming of foreign and deviant agents on this issue for causing division and opportunism, Taleqani immediately had his offices opened and, while returning to Tehran, emphasized the leadership of Imam Khomeini and said:

“The world has accepted the leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini, and not merely us.”

In October 1978, when the Revolution was in a critical situation, agents of Pahlavi’s Royal Court and the SAVAK released Taleqani from prison in order to signalize his character (rivalling that of Imam Khomeini) and divert the Revolution from its original path, but Taleqani who was aware of this conspiracy, released a statement and emphasized his support for the Revolution under the leadership of Imam Khomeini, and thereby intensified the Movement of the revolutionary masses and thwarted the SAVAK conspiracy.

Ayatollah Taleqani, in his speech on July 21, 1979 in Baharestan Square (in Tehran) expressed his stance towards Imam Khomeini as the following:

“The Leader (Ayatollah Khomeini) is so much decisive and gifted with faith and goodwill so that you can rarely find a leader like him. Some groups complain that we do not have a way, they (indeed) complain for no good reason. A listening ear (alluding to: the Qur’an 9:61) listens to the words as it was in the time of the Prophet (s.`a.w.) and then orders what is correct and enforceable. Sometimes, when I go (from the Capital) to the city of Qom [where Imam Khomeini resides], just for a political issue, the newspapers make a controversy and make big headlines. Yes, it is a case of exchanging opinions. Whenever I feel despair, (I go to meet him) I see determination, trust and sincerity from such a leader. If we don’t appreciate it, as a result of this ingratitude, we will be punished by Allah (in the Hereafter).”

Therefore, the positions, interviews, and documents of Taleqani left behind, all show his support for the leadership of the Islamic Revolution. On the other hand, Imam Khomeini’s position and opinion about Taleqani expressed on various occasions are unique by themselves.

(for instance,) In his speech after Taleqani’s death in Faydiya Seminary School, Imam Khomeini addressed the people and said:

“(Indeed) We have lost a brother, our nation has lost a father, and Islam has lost a warrior (mujahid).”

During the meeting with Taleqani’s family, he also said:

“The late Taleqani was honest. He thought honestly and acted in all honesty. He was not deviated to the left or right; nor was he westoxicated (enamored of the west) or eastoxicated (enamored of the east). He was Islamic, he (just) followed the teachings of Islam, and he was useful for a nation, and his departure is a loss (for us)” (cf. Azizi, Heshmatullah, pp. 215-220).

==His Death==
Ayatollah Taleqani died in the evening of 10 September (1979). His body was buried next to the graves of the martyrs of the Islamic Revolution in Behesht Zahra Cemetery [in the vicinity of the capital] after a mass funeral procession. Imam Khomeini in his message of condolence on his death, considered him as the great Companion of the Prophet (s.`a.w.) Abu Dharr al-Ghifari for Islam and emphasized that his eloquent tongue was as efficient as the sword of [Imam `Ali’s disciple and army commander] Malik Ashtar al-Nakha’i (Ja’fari, Muhammad Mahdi, vol. 30, p. 541).

==His works==
Ayatollah Taleqani’s works and writings are a diverse and valuable collection, including authorship, commentary, translation, essays and speeches, which were written in the most difficult time and place conditions, in travel and presence, in exile and in prison, with great effort and struggle. Some of his works are as follows:

1. “Partovi az Qur’an (A ray of the Qur’an – a commentary on the Qur’an)”: This commentary of the Qur'an, which is considered the most important work of Ayatollah Taleqani, was written during almost sixteen years from 1963 to 1979, under Taleqani's most difficult conditions of the mosque, prison or exile. In the opinion of many Islamic researchers, this unfinished, small-volume, but rich commentary brought about a change in the knowledge of the Qur'an and a movement in the educated young generation, and it was highly regarded in the religious, scientific and exegetical community.

The most important message of this commentary, representing the thought of Ayatollah Taleqani is that the Qur'an is a book of guidance, not a book of scientific, philosophical, legal analysis and the like. This work caused Ayatollah Taleqani to be mentioned as one of the pioneers of the movement of returning to the Qur'an in Iran. In fact, in this work, he was influenced by the movement of elders and reformers such as Shaykh Muhammad `Abduh [1849-1905] and Rashid Rida [1865-1935] (pupils of Sayyid Jamal al-Din Asadabadi [1838-97]) and the founders of the movement of returning to the Qur'an. This work, which is [considered as] a religious, scientific, mystical, historical and social encyclopedia with a new method, has been, published in six volumes by Sherkat-e Sahami Enteshar (lit. joint-stock company Publishers).

Concerning the value and importance of this commentary Hojjat-ul-Islam, S. Mahmoud Du'aei, a high official in the Imam Khomeini's office said:

“In Najaf I had presented the book “Partovi az Qur’an (A ray of the Qur’an)” to Imam Khomeini to study. After some time, I heard his elder son Martyr Seyyed Mustafa saying that the Imam emphatically had recommended him to study it for sure and to draw inspiration from it both in the methodology and the understandings and apply them in his own work on the commentary of the Qur'an. The Imam's recommendation to study this book and his absolute approval for it was so much serious that surprised his son due to the fact that the Imam had a cautious manner with regard to the individuals and their writings”. (Azizi, Heshmatullah, pp. 37-38).

2. Governance in the eyes of Islam: After the coup d'état on 19 August 1953, when the atmosphere of silence and suffocation once again cast a shadow on Iranian society, Ayatollah Taleqani, who wrote most of his works according to the requirements of the age, attempted to edit and publish a valuable and forgotten book. Allama [Mirza Husayn] Naini's Tanbih al-Ummah wa Tanzih al-Millah (lit. awakening the community and purification of the religion) was written during the [Iranian] Constitutional Movement (1905-9). Taleqani revived this book after it was abandoned for a long time, and was likely close to being put into oblivion. In fact, after Taleqani's work, this book became known and received attention. Taleqani did not revise the original text of the book, but rather he wrote a very good introduction and explanations on it.

According to Taleqani, the general purpose of this book was:

“To express the state and conditions of the governance from the point of view of Islam and Shi'ism... This book is an argumentative jurisprudence for the researchers, and a book of practical laws of Islam on social tasks for the common people”.

Taleqani's intention for reviving and introducing this precious work was to condemn the authoritarian governments, and exposing their nature and also to encourage the clergy to interfere in the politics and fate of society (ibid., pp. 36-37).

3. Translation and commentary of 81 sermons from Nahj al-Balagha: This book was published in 1947. Later, with the permission of Ayatollah Taleqani, Seyyed Muhammad Mahdi Ja'fari continued his translation and research [employing the same method] and published it in five volumes in a book under the title of “Partovi az Nahj al-Balagha (A Ray of Nahj al-Balagha)”.

4. Translation of the book al-Imam `Ali ibn Abi Talib: He translated and published the first volume of the book al-Imam `Ali ibn Abi Talib authored by the famous [Egyptian] scholar `Abd al-Fattah `Abd al-Maqsoud in 1956-7, but later he failed to translate the rest of the book due to political-social troubles, imprisonment and exile.

In 1970, Mr. Jafari was suggested to translate the next volumes of this book, which was valuable due to its importance in proximation between the Sunni and Shia denominations. He translated the second volume under the supervision and guidance of Ayatollah Taleqani, and the next volumes independently. The whole work was published in eight volumes by Sherkat-e Sahami-ye Enteshar (the joint stock company).

In fact, Ayatollah Taleqani recommends and emphasizes to the researchers and intellectuals of the society by doing these two translations the field of research and the necessity of knowing Imam `Ali (a.s.), the Commander of the Faithful and his government.

5. Islam and Ownership: In addition to religious, political and cultural issues, Taleqani paid special attention to economic issues by raising the topic of ownership in the Islamic Student Association during 1950-2 and writing the book “Islam and Ownership”. In this book, while examining and rejecting the capitalist and socialist economic systems that at that time had divided the world into two poles of socialism and communism, Taleqani cited Islamic and Qur'anic jurisprudential foundations, and challenged this important issue in the Islamic jurisprudence, and established the Islamic economic system. In fact, by writing this book, for the first time in the history and jurisprudence of the Shi'a, Taleqani opened a chapter in the Islamic economy and the limits of ownership; and in the midst of the propaganda of anti-Islamic groups, he confronted [indeed] the socialism and capitalism in the East and the West [Translated into English by A. Jabbari and F. Rajaee. Lexington, Kentucky: Mazda Publishers, 1983.] (ibid., pp. 35-36).

6. We are going to God, or the memoirs of the Hajj pilgrimage: This pilgrimage took place in 1952 after a few months of Taleqani's participation in the Karachi Muslim People's Conference. He first went to Iraq and visited the Holy Shrines of the Imams and the cultural centers of that country, and then travelled to Syria and visited the Holy Shrines there. After that he went to Beirut (Lebanon) and from there to Jeddah (Saudi Arabia). At that time, the Iranians were suffering from much difficulties; because the national government of Dr. Mossadeq was in office and the governments who were under influence of British policy were highly restrict to Iran. In this informative travelogue, Ayatollah Taleqani complains about the companions more than about the officials of Saudi Arabia; that is the companions who are ignorant or negligent about the spirit of Hajj, disregard the unity of Muslims and suffer from lack of knowledge about the today's world politics and neglect the spiritual issues. This travelogue is a very clear and expressive picture of the political, social and cultural situation in the Middle East at that period of time.

7. Centralization and decentralization of religious authority and fatwa:

After the death of the exclusive authority of the entire Shi'a world, Ayatollah Borujerdi (in 1961), some scholars and religious thinkers in Tehran and Qom thought of holding a seminar to discuss authority and its centralization or decentralization, that is, being the religious authority as a council or being it as an individual. This seminar was not held for one reason or another, however, each of the participants-to-be wrote an article that were published under the title of A Discussion about Religious Authority and Clergy by Sherkat-e Sahami-ye Enteshar Publishers (Enteshar Joint-stock Company).

According to Hamid Algar (Encyclopedia of Islam under the article “Islah (Reform)”, it is perhaps the most effective and informative religious writing written in Persian since the publication of the book Tanbih al-Umma. One of its important articles was the above-mentioned title by Ayatollah Taleqani, who concluded after a historical, political and jurisprudential discussion that considering the political and cultural situation of the world, it is better to have the religious authority in the form of a council and that the fatwa (verdict) to be issued based on the expertise of the members of the Religious Authority Council.

8. Religious, social, moral, philosophical, educational discourses.

9. Explanation of the Mission for maintaining justice: including six speeches in the Hedayat Mosque in November and December 1978 (ibid., pp. 34-35).

10. Sermons of Friday Prayer and Eid al-Fitr (Day of Fast-breaking)

11. The future of mankind and directions for a bright future

12. Hijab, the woman's personality

13. A discussion about religious authority and the clergy

14. Freedom and tyranny

15. Speech on Ashura

16. And More…

==Bibliography==
1. Azizi, Heshmatullah, Life and Struggles of Ayatollah Taleqani, Tehran, Islamic Revolution Documentation Center, 1st edition, summer 20098.

2. Mir Abol-Qasemi, Seyyed Muhammad Husayn, “Seyyed Abol-Hasan Taleqani”, in Danehsname-ye Jahan-e Islam (Encyclopedia of the Muslim World), vol. 30, pp. 535-7, under the supervision of Gholam Ali Haddad Adel, , Islamic Encyclopedia Foundation, 1st edition, Tehran, 2021.

3. Ja'fari, Muhammad Mahdi, “Seyyed Mahmoud Taleqani”, in Danehsname-ye Jahan-e Islam (Encyclopedia of the Muslim World), vol. 30, pp. 537-41, under the supervision of Gholam Ali Haddad Adel, Islamic Encyclopedia Foundation, 1st edition, Tehran, 2021.

4. Mollai Tawani, Ali Reza, Political Biography of Ayatollah Taleqani, Nay Publishers, 2nd edition, Tehran, 2010.

5. Ja'fari, Muhammad Mahdi, 1389, Ayatollah Taleqani va Tafsir Partovi az Qur'an (Ay. Taleqani and the Commentary: a ray from the light of the Qur'an), in collaboration with Akbar Thaqfiyan and Ali Ojbi, Khane-ye Ketab, second edition, Tehran, [2010].

[[fa:طالقانی، سید محمود]]
[[ar:السيد محمود الطالقاني]]

Hasan bin Yusuf Hilli

2023-11-27T06:53:32Z

A-esmaili:

{{Infobox person
| title = Ḥasan bin Yusuf Ḥilli
| image = NUR00008.jpg
| full name = Hasan bin Yusuf Hilli
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'''Jamāl ad-Dīn al-Ḥasan bin Yūsuf bin ʿAli bin al-Muṭahhar al-Ḥillī''' (December 1250 – December 1325), commonly known as Allāma Ḥelli, was a Twelver Shia theologian and mujtahid.

== Preface==
Praise be to Allah Who honored mankind by sending to them His messengers as lights of guidance; and blessings be upon the Prophet, the guide of people, who exposed the way of salvation and purity to all people; and the most sincere blessings be upon the Prophets Household who were the Imams and leaders of the religion and had the most obvious role in protecting the luminous rulings of Islam. Those honorable figures trained people who enjoyed prepared souls by interpreting the pure religion of Islam to them through their revelatory knowledge. They also protected Islam from decaying by explaining and commentating the pure Prophetic Shariah, educating talented students and disseminating the Islamic teachings.

The true scholars have all the time been the samples of rationality, knowledge, piety, sincerity, enlightenment, guidance, dignity, endeavor, and self-sacrifice. In their books has been manifested a fraction of their scholarly endeavors. At the time being, the expansion of new methods of disseminating information has provided a proper ground for conveying the scholars knowledge to those who are thirsty for wisdom.

Taking into consideration the importance of the Muslim scholars works, Computer Research Center of Islamic Sciences has been determined to take steps toward commemoration of them by collecting and presenting their writings in the form of software programs to enable the researchers to take advantage of their knowledge.

The polymath prolific scholar Allamah Hilli )d. 726/1326( is one of great personalities in whom the Shia take pride. He has written various books in different branches of knowledge, which have been hailed, annotated or explained by the scholars interested in those branches. Allamah Hilli compiled his books for readers of different levels of education and knowledge. In jurisprudence, for instance, he wrote the books of Tabsirat al-Mutaallimin, Idah al-Ahkam and Irshad al-Adhhan for the elementary level. He compiled Qawaid al-Ahkam and Tahrir al-Ahkam for the intermediate level, and Mukhtalaf al-Shiah, Tadhkirat al-Fuqaha and Muntaha al-Matlab for the advanced level.

Tahdhib al-Usoul, Mabadi al-Wusoul and Nihayat al-Wusoul are the writings of Allamah Hilli in the field of principles of jurisprudence. His book in ilm al-kalam )theology( called Minhaj al-Karamah fi Marifat al-Imamah enraged the Salafi Sunni scholar Ibn Taymiyyah )d. 728/1327( to that extent that the latter wrote a rebuttal against it under the title of Minhaj al-Sunnah. Nahj al-Haqq wa Kashf al-Sidq is another compilation of the Allamah in this field to prove the divinely appointed leadership of Imam Ali, the Commander of the Faithful. His book in the field of logic is called al-Jawhar al-Nadid. Hilli has penned a book about Arabic grammar.

Computer Research Center of Islamic Sciences has already used writings of Allamah Hilli in its various software programs; however, since his writings in different fields of knowledge together with the annotations and commentaries written on them constitute a big collection, the CRCIS has decided to develop a separate software program comprising Allamahs all writings. It is hoped that this product will contribute to the dissemination of Islamic culture and will gain Allahs satisfaction.

== Introduction to the Program==
The program consists of four main parts: Display, Search, Interrelated books and the Quran.

==Display==
This part contains 99 books in 359 volumes. The user can customize the range of displayed books. The tables of contents of books are presented in both tree and selective indexes. Ten dictionaries are also provided for the researchers convenience. Printing and transferring the table of contents and texts to Notepad are among other capabilities offered in this part. Moreover, text tools including adding highlights, annotations, bookmarks and user indexes are prepared )accessible by right-clicking( for research affairs. In addition, searching in the texts of books, dictionaries or the Holy Quran research tools are possible in the same way.Û

==Search==
The user can make simple and advanced searches in this part using search operators and list making capability with wildcards )×, ?).

==Interrelated Books==
The books and their translations or explanations )if available in the program( have been mutually linked to each other.

==Quran==
Full text of the Quran along with its translation and search options has been included in a separate part so that it can be accessed from everywhere in the program.

==Tools==
This part includes Print, Transfer to Notepad, Dictionary and Help.

==Options==
The user can customize keyboard layout, fonts, personal researches path )adding highlights, annotations, user index entries and bookmarks( and interface language )English, Persian and Arabic( using this part.

Computer Research Center of Islamic Sciences is open to any constructive criticism and suggestion of yours that may help us with the promotion of the program.

Computer Research Center of Islamic Sciences )CRCIS(. All rights reserved.

[[fa:حلی، حسن بن یوسف]]
[[ar:الحسن بن يوسف الحلي]]

Hasan bin Yusuf Hilli

2023-11-27T06:50:27Z

A-esmaili: A-esmaili moved page Ḥasan bin Yusuf Ḥilli to Hasan bin Yusuf Hilli without leaving a redirect

Hasan bin Yusuf Hilli

2023-11-27T06:50:05Z

A-esmaili:

Hasan bin Yusuf Hilli

2023-11-27T06:49:47Z

A-esmaili: Created page with "{{Infobox person | title = Ḥasan bin Yusuf Ḥilli | image = NUR00008.jpg | full name = Hasan bin Yusuf Hilli | other names = | epithet = | lineage = | father's name = | date of birth = | place of birth = | country of birth = | place of residence = | date of death = | martyrdom = | burial place = | length of life = | spouse = | children = | relatives = | religion = | denomination = | occupation = | after than = | before than = | permission to ijt..."

{{Infobox person
| title = Ḥasan bin Yusuf Ḥilli
| image = NUR00008.jpg
| full name = Hasan bin Yusuf Hilli
| other names =
| epithet =
| lineage =
| father's name =
| date of birth =
| place of birth =
| country of birth =
| place of residence =
| date of death =
| martyrdom =
| burial place =
| length of life =
| spouse =
| children =
| relatives =
| religion =
| denomination =
| occupation =
| after than =
| before than =
| permission to ijtihad from =
| scientific degree =
| university =
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| research inclinations =
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| authorcode = AUTHORCODE00008AUTHORCODE
}}
Jamāl ad-Dīn al-Ḥasan bin Yūsuf bin ʿAli bin al-Muṭahhar al-Ḥillī (December 1250 – December 1325), commonly known as Allāma Ḥelli, was a Twelver Shia theologian and mujtahid.

== Preface==
Praise be to Allah Who honored mankind by sending to them His messengers as lights of guidance; and blessings be upon the Prophet, the guide of people, who exposed the way of salvation and purity to all people; and the most sincere blessings be upon the Prophets Household who were the Imams and leaders of the religion and had the most obvious role in protecting the luminous rulings of Islam. Those honorable figures trained people who enjoyed prepared souls by interpreting the pure religion of Islam to them through their revelatory knowledge. They also protected Islam from decaying by explaining and commentating the pure Prophetic Shariah, educating talented students and disseminating the Islamic teachings.

The true scholars have all the time been the samples of rationality, knowledge, piety, sincerity, enlightenment, guidance, dignity, endeavor, and self-sacrifice. In their books has been manifested a fraction of their scholarly endeavors. At the time being, the expansion of new methods of disseminating information has provided a proper ground for conveying the scholars knowledge to those who are thirsty for wisdom.

Taking into consideration the importance of the Muslim scholars works, Computer Research Center of Islamic Sciences has been determined to take steps toward commemoration of them by collecting and presenting their writings in the form of software programs to enable the researchers to take advantage of their knowledge.

The polymath prolific scholar Allamah Hilli )d. 726/1326( is one of great personalities in whom the Shia take pride. He has written various books in different branches of knowledge, which have been hailed, annotated or explained by the scholars interested in those branches. Allamah Hilli compiled his books for readers of different levels of education and knowledge. In jurisprudence, for instance, he wrote the books of Tabsirat al-Mutaallimin, Idah al-Ahkam and Irshad al-Adhhan for the elementary level. He compiled Qawaid al-Ahkam and Tahrir al-Ahkam for the intermediate level, and Mukhtalaf al-Shiah, Tadhkirat al-Fuqaha and Muntaha al-Matlab for the advanced level.

Tahdhib al-Usoul, Mabadi al-Wusoul and Nihayat al-Wusoul are the writings of Allamah Hilli in the field of principles of jurisprudence. His book in ilm al-kalam )theology( called Minhaj al-Karamah fi Marifat al-Imamah enraged the Salafi Sunni scholar Ibn Taymiyyah )d. 728/1327( to that extent that the latter wrote a rebuttal against it under the title of Minhaj al-Sunnah. Nahj al-Haqq wa Kashf al-Sidq is another compilation of the Allamah in this field to prove the divinely appointed leadership of Imam Ali, the Commander of the Faithful. His book in the field of logic is called al-Jawhar al-Nadid. Hilli has penned a book about Arabic grammar.

Computer Research Center of Islamic Sciences has already used writings of Allamah Hilli in its various software programs; however, since his writings in different fields of knowledge together with the annotations and commentaries written on them constitute a big collection, the CRCIS has decided to develop a separate software program comprising Allamahs all writings. It is hoped that this product will contribute to the dissemination of Islamic culture and will gain Allahs satisfaction.

== Introduction to the Program==
The program consists of four main parts: Display, Search, Interrelated books and the Quran.

==Display==
This part contains 99 books in 359 volumes. The user can customize the range of displayed books. The tables of contents of books are presented in both tree and selective indexes. Ten dictionaries are also provided for the researchers convenience. Printing and transferring the table of contents and texts to Notepad are among other capabilities offered in this part. Moreover, text tools including adding highlights, annotations, bookmarks and user indexes are prepared )accessible by right-clicking( for research affairs. In addition, searching in the texts of books, dictionaries or the Holy Quran research tools are possible in the same way.Û

==Search==
The user can make simple and advanced searches in this part using search operators and list making capability with wildcards )×, ?).

==Interrelated Books==
The books and their translations or explanations )if available in the program( have been mutually linked to each other.

==Quran==
Full text of the Quran along with its translation and search options has been included in a separate part so that it can be accessed from everywhere in the program.

==Tools==
This part includes Print, Transfer to Notepad, Dictionary and Help.

==Options==
The user can customize keyboard layout, fonts, personal researches path )adding highlights, annotations, user index entries and bookmarks( and interface language )English, Persian and Arabic( using this part.

Computer Research Center of Islamic Sciences is open to any constructive criticism and suggestion of yours that may help us with the promotion of the program.

Computer Research Center of Islamic Sciences )CRCIS(. All rights reserved.

Sayyed Ali Khamenei

2023-11-27T03:57:29Z

A-esmaili: /* Translations (from Arabic into Farsi) */

{{Infobox person
| title = Ayatollah Sayyed Ali Khamenei
| image = NUR00006.jpg
| full name = Sayyed Ali Khamenei
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On the 16th of July 1939, the future Leader of Islamic Iran was born in the holy city of Mashhad, in the province of Khorasan. Sayyed Ali was the second son of Sayyed Javad Khamenei, a humble and poor Islamic scholar who taught all members of his family how to lead a simple, humble way of life.

"My father, though a well-known religious figure, was a bit of an ascetic. We had a hard life. Sometimes for supper we had nothing but bread with some raisins, which our mother had somehow improvised.... our house, some sixty-five square meters, consisted of a single room and a gloomy basement. When visitors came to see my father as the local cleric to consult about their problems, the family had to move into the basement while the visit went on.... Years later some charitable persons bought the small, empty lot adjacent to our house, so we were able to build two more rooms."

Detailed biography of Ayatollah Khamenei, the Leader of Islamic Revolution

==EDUCATION==
At the age of four Sayyed Ali and his older brother Mohammad, were sent to maktab, the traditional primary-schools of that time, in order to learn the alphabet and the Holy Quran. Later, he was transferred to a newly established Islamic school to continue his learning.

After this primary schooling, Sayyed Ali pursued his studies at the theological seminary in Mashhad. "The main encouraging factors for this enlightened decision were my parents, especially my father" says Ayatollah Khamenei today.

At Soleiman Khan and Nawwab religious schools and under the supervision of his father and the tutorships of some great religious scholars, he studied all the 'intermediate level ' curriculum including logic, philosophy and Islamic jurisprudence in the exceptionally short time of five years. He then started his advanced level studies called darse kharij with such eminent scholars and instructors as Grand Ayatollah Milani.

==THE FAMED SEMINARIES OF NAJAF AND QUM==
The young Sayyed Ali was only eighteen years old when he started his studies at the highest level. He decided to make a pilgrimage to the holy shrines in Iraq, and so he left Iran for Najaf in 1957. He was fascinated by the theological and academic instructions of such eminent scholars such as Ayatollah Hakim and Ayatollah Shahrudi. He attended their lessons and was willing to stay there and continue his studies in order to profit from these excellent teachers. However his father made it known that he preferred his son continue his advanced studies in the holy city of Qum. Thus, respecting his father's wish, he returned to Iran in 1958.

Diligently and enthusiastically he followed his advanced studies in Qum from 1958 to 1964 and benefited from the teachings of great scholars and grand ayatollahs such as Ayat. Borujerdi, Imam Khomeini, Ayat. Haeri Yazdi and Allamah Tabatabai.

He received the bad news that his father had lost his sight in one eye and was not able to read properly. This prompted him to return to Mashhad and while being at the service of his father, seek further knowledge from him, from Ayatollah Milani and other important scholars residing in Mashhad. The young Sayyed Ali, who had now become a mujtahid by having completed his advanced level studies, began to teach various religious subjects to younger seminary and university students.

Recalling this important point of departure in his life, the Leader says, "If there have been any successes in my life, they all go back to God's blessings favored upon me because of my dutiful caring for parents."

==POLITICAL ACTIVITIES==
"In the areas of political and revolutionary ideas and Islamic jurisprudence, I am certainly a disciple of Imam Khomeini" says Ayatollah Khamenei. He adds: "Yet the very first sparks of consciousness concerning Islamic, revolutionary ideas and the duty to fight the Shah's despotism and his British supporters, was kindled in my soul at the age of 13 when the brave cleric, Nawwab Safavi, later martyred by the Shah's regime, came to our school in Mashhad in 1952 and delivered a fiery speech against the Shah's anti-Islamic and devious policies."

It was in Qum in 1962, that Sayyed Ali joined the ranks of the revolutionary followers of Imam Khomeini who opposed the pro-American, anti-Islamic policies of the Shah's regime.

Dedicated and fearless, he followed this path for the next 16 years which ultimately led to the downfall of the Shah's brutal regime: persecution, torture, imprisonment and exile could not make him waver for a moment.

In May of 1963 (corresponding to the holy month of Muharram), Imam Khomeini honored the young, brave cleric Sayyed Ali, with the mission of taking a secret message to Ayatollah Milani and other clergymen in Mashhad, on the ways and tactics of exposing the true nature of the Shah's regime. He fulfilled this mission properly and traveled to the city of Birjand for further propagation of Imam Khomeini's views. Here he was arrested for the first time and spent one night in jail. The following the authorities ordered him not to speak at the pulpit again. From that moment he knew that he would be under police surveillance all the time. Of course he did not submit to police threats, and as a result of his activities relating to the bloody June 1963 Uprising (15th of Khordad ), he was again arrested and transferred to Mashhad to spend ten days in prison under severe conditions.

In January 1964 (Ramadhan 1383), according to a well-organized plan, Ayatollah Khamenei and a few close friends traveled to Kirman and Zahedan in southern Iran, to expose the phony referendum the Shah was holding for his so-called reforms. There in the course of many public speeches, he exposed the satanic American policies of the Pahlavi regime. This time, the Shah's feared intelligence agency, SAVAK, stepped in and arrested him one late evening. He was taken to Tehran by an airplane to spend two months in solitary confinement during which time he was tortured.

Once freed, he started holding lessons on the exegeses of the Holy Quran, the Prophetic Traditions and Islamic ideology in Mashhad and Tehran. These lessons were most appreciated by the revolutionary Iranian youth. As he was sure now that SAVAK was watching him closely, he was forced to go underground in 1967. However, he was arrested again for holding such classes and Islamic discussions.

Ayatollah Khamenei has himself explained the reasons for such measures by SAVAK:

"From 1970 onwards, grounds for an armed movement were being laid out. Accordingly the regime's sensitivity and severity of action against me increased. They could not believe that the armed actions were not connected with a sound, Islamic ideology. They thought that there must be links between these revolutionaries and people like me because of my intellectual and diligent activities. Despite all this, after I was released, more and more people attended my classes on the Holy Quran and many were present at our clandestine gatherings."

==LAST ARREST AND EXILE==
Throughout the years 1972-1975, Ayatollah Khamenei was holding classes on the Holy Quran and Islamic ideology in three different mosques in Mashhad. These classes together with his lectures on Imam Ali's (as) Nahjul Balagha attracted thousands of conscious, politically-minded youth and students. The lectures were circulated among the people in hand-written or typed forms, in most towns and cities.

His students traveled to distant cities to spread his lessons and ideas. All this frightened the Shah's SAVAK agents and so, in the winter of 1975, they broke into his home in Mashhad and arrested him for the 6th time and confiscated all his books and notes.

Now he was detained in Tehran's notorious "Police-SAVAK Joint Prison" for many months. This had been his most trying imprisonment, and Ayatollah Khamenei has this to say about the barbarous treatment of the detainees: "These conditions may be understood only by those who suffered them..."

In the autumn of 1975, he was freed and sent back to Mashhad and he was now completely banned from delivering lectures or holding classes.

His clandestine activities, however, prompted SAVAK to apprehend him in the winter of 1976 and sentence him to exile for three years. This difficult period came to an end in the latter part of 1978 due to the prevailing political conditions, and Ayatollah Khamenei returned to Mashhad a few months before the triumph of the Islamic revolution. He diligently continued his political-religious activities in this momentous period of civil unrest and mass demonstrations throughout Iran.

Thus, after nearly 15 years of bearing all sorts of torture and maltreatment at the hands of the agents of the Shah's bloodthirsty regime, he could now witness the fall of the tyrannical Pahlavi regime and the rise of an Islamic Republic in Iran.

==THE VICTORY OF THE ISLAMIC REVOLUTION==
Shortly before the triumph of the Islamic Revolution (February 11, 1979) and before Imam Khomeini's victorious return to Iran from Paris, an Islamic Revolutionary Council was formed at the behest of the Imam. Ayatollah Khamenei was appointed as a member of this Council together with other important Islamic notables such Shahid Ayatollahs Motahhari and Beheshti. He, therefore, left Mashhad for Tehran to take up his new responsibilities.

==NEW RESPONSIBILITIES==
The following is a list of the services he has rendered to the Islamic Republic since that time:
1980- Founding member of the Islamic Republic Party, together with such religious scholars and Mujahids as Shahid Beheshti, Rafsanjani, Shahid Bahonar, and Musavi-Ardebili.
• Deputy-Minister of Defence
• Supervisor of the Islamic Revolutionary Guards
• Imam of Tehran's Friday Congregational Prayers, per Imam Khomeini's decree.
• Elected Tehran MP in the Majlis (Consultative Assembly)
1981- Imam Khomeini's Representative at the High Council of Defence
• Active presence at the fronts of the Iraqi-imposed war.
1982- Elected President of the Islamic Republic of Iran following the martyrdom of President Mohammad Ali Rajai (Ayatollah Khamenei was himself the target of an assassination attempt at Abu Dhar mosque in Tehran after which he was hospitalized for a few months).
• Appointed Chairman of the Revolution's Cultural Council.
1986- President of the Expediency Council
• Re-elected President of the Islamic Republic for a second 4-year term
1989- Elected as the Leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran by the Assembly of Experts after the demise of Imam Khomeini.
1990- Chairman of the Committee for Revision of the Constitution.

==WORKS AUTHORED AND TRANSLATIONS==
===Works Authored===
# Islamic Thought in the Quran (An Outline)
# The Profundity of Prayer
# A Discourse on Patience
# On the Four Principal Books of Traditions Concerning the Biography of Narrators.
# Guardianship (Wilayah)
# A General Report of the Islamic Seminary of Mashhad
# Imam Al-Saadiq (AS)
# Unity and Political Parties
# Personal Views on the Arts
# Understanding Religion Properly
# Struggles of Shia Imams (as)
# The Essence of God's Unity
# The Necessity of Returning to the Quran
# Imam Al-Sajjad (as)
# Imam Reza (as) and His Appointment as Crown Prince.
# The Cultural Invasion (Collection of Speeches)
# Collections of Speeches and Messages ( 9 Volumes )

===Translations (from Arabic into Farsi)===
# Peace Treaty of Imam Hassan (AS) , by Raazi Aal-Yasseen
# The Future in Islamic Lands, by Sayyed Qutb
# Muslims in the Liberation Movement of India, by Abdulmunaim Nassri
# An Indictment against the Western Civilization, by Sayyed Gutb

[[fa:خامنه‌ای، سید علی]]
[[ar:السيد علي الحسيني الخامنه‌اي]]

Sayyed Ali Khamenei

2023-11-27T03:54:49Z

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Sayyed Ali Khamenei

2023-11-27T03:54:24Z

A-esmaili: Created page with "{{Infobox person | title = Ayatollah Sayyed Ali Khamenei | image = NUR00006.jpg | full name = Sayyed Ali Khamenei | other names = | epithet = | lineage = | father's name = | date of birth = | place of birth = | country of birth = | place of residence = | date of death = | martyrdom = | burial place = | length of life = | spouse = | children = | relatives = | religion = | denomination = | occupation = | after than = | before than = | permission to i..."

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On the 16th of July 1939, the future Leader of Islamic Iran was born in the holy city of Mashhad, in the province of Khorasan. Sayyed Ali was the second son of Sayyed Javad Khamenei, a humble and poor Islamic scholar who taught all members of his family how to lead a simple, humble way of life.

"My father, though a well-known religious figure, was a bit of an ascetic. We had a hard life. Sometimes for supper we had nothing but bread with some raisins, which our mother had somehow improvised.... our house, some sixty-five square meters, consisted of a single room and a gloomy basement. When visitors came to see my father as the local cleric to consult about their problems, the family had to move into the basement while the visit went on.... Years later some charitable persons bought the small, empty lot adjacent to our house, so we were able to build two more rooms."

Detailed biography of Ayatollah Khamenei, the Leader of Islamic Revolution

==EDUCATION==
At the age of four Sayyed Ali and his older brother Mohammad, were sent to maktab, the traditional primary-schools of that time, in order to learn the alphabet and the Holy Quran. Later, he was transferred to a newly established Islamic school to continue his learning.

After this primary schooling, Sayyed Ali pursued his studies at the theological seminary in Mashhad. "The main encouraging factors for this enlightened decision were my parents, especially my father" says Ayatollah Khamenei today.

At Soleiman Khan and Nawwab religious schools and under the supervision of his father and the tutorships of some great religious scholars, he studied all the 'intermediate level ' curriculum including logic, philosophy and Islamic jurisprudence in the exceptionally short time of five years. He then started his advanced level studies called darse kharij with such eminent scholars and instructors as Grand Ayatollah Milani.

==THE FAMED SEMINARIES OF NAJAF AND QUM==
The young Sayyed Ali was only eighteen years old when he started his studies at the highest level. He decided to make a pilgrimage to the holy shrines in Iraq, and so he left Iran for Najaf in 1957. He was fascinated by the theological and academic instructions of such eminent scholars such as Ayatollah Hakim and Ayatollah Shahrudi. He attended their lessons and was willing to stay there and continue his studies in order to profit from these excellent teachers. However his father made it known that he preferred his son continue his advanced studies in the holy city of Qum. Thus, respecting his father's wish, he returned to Iran in 1958.

Diligently and enthusiastically he followed his advanced studies in Qum from 1958 to 1964 and benefited from the teachings of great scholars and grand ayatollahs such as Ayat. Borujerdi, Imam Khomeini, Ayat. Haeri Yazdi and Allamah Tabatabai.

He received the bad news that his father had lost his sight in one eye and was not able to read properly. This prompted him to return to Mashhad and while being at the service of his father, seek further knowledge from him, from Ayatollah Milani and other important scholars residing in Mashhad. The young Sayyed Ali, who had now become a mujtahid by having completed his advanced level studies, began to teach various religious subjects to younger seminary and university students.

Recalling this important point of departure in his life, the Leader says, "If there have been any successes in my life, they all go back to God's blessings favored upon me because of my dutiful caring for parents."

==POLITICAL ACTIVITIES==
"In the areas of political and revolutionary ideas and Islamic jurisprudence, I am certainly a disciple of Imam Khomeini" says Ayatollah Khamenei. He adds: "Yet the very first sparks of consciousness concerning Islamic, revolutionary ideas and the duty to fight the Shah's despotism and his British supporters, was kindled in my soul at the age of 13 when the brave cleric, Nawwab Safavi, later martyred by the Shah's regime, came to our school in Mashhad in 1952 and delivered a fiery speech against the Shah's anti-Islamic and devious policies."

It was in Qum in 1962, that Sayyed Ali joined the ranks of the revolutionary followers of Imam Khomeini who opposed the pro-American, anti-Islamic policies of the Shah's regime.

Dedicated and fearless, he followed this path for the next 16 years which ultimately led to the downfall of the Shah's brutal regime: persecution, torture, imprisonment and exile could not make him waver for a moment.

In May of 1963 (corresponding to the holy month of Muharram), Imam Khomeini honored the young, brave cleric Sayyed Ali, with the mission of taking a secret message to Ayatollah Milani and other clergymen in Mashhad, on the ways and tactics of exposing the true nature of the Shah's regime. He fulfilled this mission properly and traveled to the city of Birjand for further propagation of Imam Khomeini's views. Here he was arrested for the first time and spent one night in jail. The following the authorities ordered him not to speak at the pulpit again. From that moment he knew that he would be under police surveillance all the time. Of course he did not submit to police threats, and as a result of his activities relating to the bloody June 1963 Uprising (15th of Khordad ), he was again arrested and transferred to Mashhad to spend ten days in prison under severe conditions.

In January 1964 (Ramadhan 1383), according to a well-organized plan, Ayatollah Khamenei and a few close friends traveled to Kirman and Zahedan in southern Iran, to expose the phony referendum the Shah was holding for his so-called reforms. There in the course of many public speeches, he exposed the satanic American policies of the Pahlavi regime. This time, the Shah's feared intelligence agency, SAVAK, stepped in and arrested him one late evening. He was taken to Tehran by an airplane to spend two months in solitary confinement during which time he was tortured.

Once freed, he started holding lessons on the exegeses of the Holy Quran, the Prophetic Traditions and Islamic ideology in Mashhad and Tehran. These lessons were most appreciated by the revolutionary Iranian youth. As he was sure now that SAVAK was watching him closely, he was forced to go underground in 1967. However, he was arrested again for holding such classes and Islamic discussions.

Ayatollah Khamenei has himself explained the reasons for such measures by SAVAK:

"From 1970 onwards, grounds for an armed movement were being laid out. Accordingly the regime's sensitivity and severity of action against me increased. They could not believe that the armed actions were not connected with a sound, Islamic ideology. They thought that there must be links between these revolutionaries and people like me because of my intellectual and diligent activities. Despite all this, after I was released, more and more people attended my classes on the Holy Quran and many were present at our clandestine gatherings."

==LAST ARREST AND EXILE==
Throughout the years 1972-1975, Ayatollah Khamenei was holding classes on the Holy Quran and Islamic ideology in three different mosques in Mashhad. These classes together with his lectures on Imam Ali's (as) Nahjul Balagha attracted thousands of conscious, politically-minded youth and students. The lectures were circulated among the people in hand-written or typed forms, in most towns and cities.

His students traveled to distant cities to spread his lessons and ideas. All this frightened the Shah's SAVAK agents and so, in the winter of 1975, they broke into his home in Mashhad and arrested him for the 6th time and confiscated all his books and notes.

Now he was detained in Tehran's notorious "Police-SAVAK Joint Prison" for many months. This had been his most trying imprisonment, and Ayatollah Khamenei has this to say about the barbarous treatment of the detainees: "These conditions may be understood only by those who suffered them..."

In the autumn of 1975, he was freed and sent back to Mashhad and he was now completely banned from delivering lectures or holding classes.

His clandestine activities, however, prompted SAVAK to apprehend him in the winter of 1976 and sentence him to exile for three years. This difficult period came to an end in the latter part of 1978 due to the prevailing political conditions, and Ayatollah Khamenei returned to Mashhad a few months before the triumph of the Islamic revolution. He diligently continued his political-religious activities in this momentous period of civil unrest and mass demonstrations throughout Iran.

Thus, after nearly 15 years of bearing all sorts of torture and maltreatment at the hands of the agents of the Shah's bloodthirsty regime, he could now witness the fall of the tyrannical Pahlavi regime and the rise of an Islamic Republic in Iran.

==THE VICTORY OF THE ISLAMIC REVOLUTION==
Shortly before the triumph of the Islamic Revolution (February 11, 1979) and before Imam Khomeini's victorious return to Iran from Paris, an Islamic Revolutionary Council was formed at the behest of the Imam. Ayatollah Khamenei was appointed as a member of this Council together with other important Islamic notables such Shahid Ayatollahs Motahhari and Beheshti. He, therefore, left Mashhad for Tehran to take up his new responsibilities.

==NEW RESPONSIBILITIES==
The following is a list of the services he has rendered to the Islamic Republic since that time:
1980- Founding member of the Islamic Republic Party, together with such religious scholars and Mujahids as Shahid Beheshti, Rafsanjani, Shahid Bahonar, and Musavi-Ardebili.
• Deputy-Minister of Defence
• Supervisor of the Islamic Revolutionary Guards
• Imam of Tehran's Friday Congregational Prayers, per Imam Khomeini's decree.
• Elected Tehran MP in the Majlis (Consultative Assembly)
1981- Imam Khomeini's Representative at the High Council of Defence
• Active presence at the fronts of the Iraqi-imposed war.
1982- Elected President of the Islamic Republic of Iran following the martyrdom of President Mohammad Ali Rajai (Ayatollah Khamenei was himself the target of an assassination attempt at Abu Dhar mosque in Tehran after which he was hospitalized for a few months).
• Appointed Chairman of the Revolution's Cultural Council.
1986- President of the Expediency Council
• Re-elected President of the Islamic Republic for a second 4-year term
1989- Elected as the Leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran by the Assembly of Experts after the demise of Imam Khomeini.
1990- Chairman of the Committee for Revision of the Constitution.

==WORKS AUTHORED AND TRANSLATIONS==
===Works Authored===
# Islamic Thought in the Quran (An Outline)
# The Profundity of Prayer
# A Discourse on Patience
# On the Four Principal Books of Traditions Concerning the Biography of Narrators.
# Guardianship (Wilayah)
# A General Report of the Islamic Seminary of Mashhad
# Imam Al-Saadiq (AS)
# Unity and Political Parties
# Personal Views on the Arts
# Understanding Religion Properly
# Struggles of Shia Imams (as)
# The Essence of God's Unity
# The Necessity of Returning to the Quran
# Imam Al-Sajjad (as)
# Imam Reza (as) and His Appointment as Crown Prince.
# The Cultural Invasion (Collection of Speeches)
# Collections of Speeches and Messages ( 9 Volumes )

===Translations (from Arabic into Farsi)===
# Peace Treaty of Imam Hassan (AS) , by Raazi Aal-Yasseen
# The Future in Islamic Lands, by Sayyed Qutb
# Muslims in the Liberation Movement of India, by Abdulmunaim Nassri
# An Indictment against the Western Civilization, by Sayyed Gutb

Template:Main page/Second featured article

2023-01-04T09:34:10Z

A-esmaili:

[[file:NUR00499J1.jpg|right|175px]]

M`ujam Rijal al-Hadith

Sayyid Abu al-Qasim Mousawi Khoei

Rijal science, the biography of the hadith transmitters and analizing them

The Ayatollah mentioned in the introduction to his book: "In the past theRijal science was under special attention of the scholars and was of highimportance for them, but in recent times it has been neglected to such amount as if the Ijtihad )deducing the religious injunctions from the Quranand hadith( is not based on it. Considering this fact I was determined tocompile a comprehensive book that benefits the privileges of this sciencesufficiently.

This book is compiled in 32 volumes and as its title indicates has underlined the index aspect. It is attempted to render comprehensive information about each hadith transmitter as far as possible. Also since this book has been compiled later than the other books and major works in this regard, it dominates them and considers the comments of the previous scholars. Therefore, it enjoys an acceptable perfection and comprehensiveness, sothat if one possesses this book, he will not be in need of other books inmany cases.

In order to provide more authentications and reliability the compiler hasquoted all the contents of the book from the original source and did not pay any attention to the quotations of the others...<span id="mp-more"> [[M`ujam Rijal al-Hadith|'''Continues''']]
</span>

Template:Main page/First featured article

2023-01-04T09:33:51Z

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[[file:NUR00013.jpg|right|175px]]

'''Ayatollah Khoei''' (b. Rajab 15, 1317/November 19, 1899 - d. Safar 8, 1413/August 8, 1992) was an influential religious authority of Shi'a, scholar of rijal and the author of 23-volume set of [[M`ujam Rijal al-Hadith]]

The Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Abu al-Qasim Mousawi Khoei

After learning the recitation of the Holy Quran and also learning how to read and write, Sayyid Abu al-Qasim Khoei set out for Najaf, Iraq in companion with his family )parents( when he was thirteen and studied the Islamic knowledge and sciences under the prominent figures of Najaf Islamic Seminary. Even from his childhood he was famous for his intelligence, retentive memory and talent among his peers. He excelled in his education. Alongside his education Ayatollah Khoei used to teach as well so that every level of the education he received, he taught the books of its previous level.

During his fruitful lifetime Ayatollah Khoei was busy with teaching the intermediate and high-level seminary courses for some seventy years. It was almost 05 years that he had been holding the most prominent and most fruitful teaching sessions midst Najaf Islamic seminary, so that thousands of the scholars and the learned men from different Islamic countries ranging from India, Afghanistan, and Iran to Iraq, Arabia and Lebanon have been educated and trained by his teachings.

Ayatollah Khoei never had spare and idle time. His whole day and night was spent for teaching, researching, compiling, worshipping )saying prayers(, reciting the Holy Quran, replying the religious questions, meeting the people, performing congregational prayers and ziarat...<span id="mp-more"> [[Sayyid Abu al-Qasim Mousawi Khoei|'''Continues''']]
</span>

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2023-01-04T09:32:40Z

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2023-01-04T09:27:36Z

A-esmaili: Created page with "175px '''Ayatollah Khoei''' (b. Rajab 15, 1317/November 19, 1899 - d. Safar 8, 1413/August 8, 1992) was an influential religious authority of Shi'a, scholar of rijal and the author of 23-volume set of M`ujam Rijal al-Hadith The Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Abu al-Qasim Mousawi Khoei After learning the recitation of the Holy Quran and also learning how to read and write, Sayyid Abu al-Qasim Khoei set out for Najaf, Iraq in companion with his f..."

2022-12-19T10:07:25Z

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