Imam Ali b. Abi Talib (a)

Creating Imam Ali b. Abi Talib (a)
Full Name	Creating Imam Ali b. Abi Talib (a)
Other Names	Abu al-Qasim Khoei
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Abu al-Hasan, ʿAli ibn Abi Talib ibn ʿAbd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim ibn ʿAbd Manaf ibn Qusayy ibn Kilab (born 13th Rajab, 23 years before Hijra - martyred 21st Ramadan, 40 AH), is the first Imam of the Twelve Imams and the second of the Fourteen Infallibles (peace be upon them). From the Sunni perspective, he is the fourth caliph of the Rightly Guided Caliphs. He is considered the second most prominent figure in Islam, after the Prophet Muhammad (May Allah bless him and his Household), and is regarded as the absolute successor and guardian. The belief in his Imamate, succession, and guardianship, along with that of his eleven noble descendants, is a fundamental principle of the Shi ʿa Imamiyya (Twelver Shiʿa)) faith.

His Lineage

His father’s name is Abu Talib, a title (kunya) given due to his eldest son, Talib, and this title became so dominant that his real name, ʿAbd Manaf, was overshadowed and rarely used in Islamic history. He was always referred to as Abu Talib. It is said that his (i.e. Imam ʿAli's) mother named him "Haydar," (lit. lion) but his father, Abu Talib, changed his name to ʿAli. This is confirmed in a battle chant attributed to him during the Battle of Khaybar, where he proclaimed, "I am the one whom my mother named Haydar" (ana-lladhi sammat-hu ummi haydarah)

ʿAli’s mother was Fatima bint Asad ibn Hashim ibn ʿAbd Manaf ibn Qusay, and according to genealogists, she was the first woman from the Hashimite family to marry a Hashimite man (Abu Talib) and bear children. She is considered to be the eleventh person to embrace Islam. The Prophet Muhammad (May Allah bless him and his Household) personally led her funeral prayer and said that after Abu Talib, no one had been as kind to him as she had been.

His Titles (Kunya) and Epithets (Laqab)

The titles (kunyas) of ʿAli ibn Abi Talib include Abu al-Hasan, Abu al-Husayn, Abu al-Sibtayn (father of the [Prophet's] two grandsons), Abu al-Rayhanatayn (father of the two fragrant flowers), Abu Turab, and Abu al-A’imma (father of the Imams).

Numerous other titles and attributes have also been ascribed to him in various sources, such as: Amir al-Mu’minin (Commander of the Faithful), Yaʿsub al-Din wal-Muslimin (Leader of Religion and the Muslims), Haydar (Lion), Murtada (the Chosen One), Qasim al-Nar wal-Janna (Distributor of Heaven and Hell), Sahib al-Liwa (Bearer of the Standard), al-Siddiq al-Akbar (the Greatest Truthful One), Farooq (the one who distinguishes right from wrong), and many more.

ʿAli ibn Abi Talib (peace be upon him) was also famously known as Abu Turab, a title bestowed upon him by the Prophet Muhammad (May Allah bless him and his Household), which he cherished greatly and preferred over his other titles. However, the Umayyads and his other adversaries saw this title as a form of insult and mockery. They instructed their followers to use it derogatorily against him. Figures such as Ziyad ibn Abih, his son ʿUbaydullah ibn Ziyad, and Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi frequently used this title to belittle him.

His Birth

Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) was born on the 13th of Rajab, in the 30th year of the Year of the Elephant (ʿAam al-Fil), within the Kaʿaba. It is said that no one before or after him has been born inside the Kaʿaba. If the birth of the Prophet Muhammad (May Allah bless him and his Household) occurred in the Year of the Elephant, which some scholars estimate to correspond to 570 CE, then Imam ʿAli’s birth likely took place around 600 CE, which is approximately 21 years before the Hijra. (These dates are approximate, considering the differences between the lunar and Gregorian calendars.)

The First to Accept Islam

One of the divine blessings bestowed upon ʿAli ibn Abi Talib (peace be upon him) was his upbringing under the care of the Prophet Muhammad (May Allah bless him and his Household). When the Quraysh faced a severe famine, and Abu Talib, burdened with many children and limited financial means, struggled to provide for his family, the Prophet suggested to his wealthy uncle ʿAbbas that they lighten Abu Talib’s load by taking care of some of his children.

Abbas agreed, and they approached Abu Talib with the proposal, saying, "We would like to take care of one of your sons until this hardship of the famine passes." Abu Talib, who loved his son ʿAqil the most, responded, "If you leave ʿAqil with me, you may take any of my other sons." Thus, ʿAbbas took Jaʿfar, and the Prophet took ʿAli into his household. ʿAli (peace be upon him) was raised by the Prophet until the latter was chosen as a prophet, and ʿAli was the first to believe in him.

Many biographers and Sunni scholars consider ʿAli to be the first person to accept Islam. Those who view Khadija as the first [female] to embrace Islam regard ʿAli as the first male to do so.

It seems only natural that ʿAli (peace be upon him) was the first male to accept Islam, as the Prophet initially revealed his mission to Khadija, who believed in him immediately. The second person to learn of the Prophet's mission would have been ʿAli, who was living in the Prophet’s household at the time and was between ten and fifteen years old, according to various reports. After ʿAli, the next person to embrace Islam was Zayd ibn Haritha, the Prophet’s adopted son and freed slave, who also lived in the same house.

There are narrations that in the early days of Islam, people saw only the Prophet Muhammad (May Allah bless him and his Household), Lady Khadija, and ʿAli (peace be upon him) offering prayers together. Other reports state that, at the beginning of his mission, the Prophet would go into the mountain crevices and valleys around Mecca with Imam ʿAli, praying secretly away from the eyes of others.

Some Sunni scholars and traditionists, influenced by prejudice, have argued that even if ʿAli was the first Muslim, it does not count as a significant virtue because he was still a child at the time, and faith is only recognized after one reaches the age of maturity. In response, it can be said that this adds a greater merit to Imam ʿAli’s virtues. Among the first emigrants (Muhajirun) and the warriors of the Battle of Badr, who are considered superior to other companions of the Prophet, ʿAli stands out as the only person who never engaged in idol worship. From the moment he became aware of himself, he worshiped the One God and prayed alongside the Prophet.

According to another narration, when the verse "And warn your nearest relatives" (Qur'an 26:214) was revealed, the Prophet (peace be upon him) invited the children and descendants of ʿAbd al-Muttalib, his closest relatives, and said, "Whoever among you accepts my call before others will become my brother, my companion, and [my vicegerent and] my inheritor." He repeated this statement three times, and each time, only ʿAli (peace be upon him) stood up and affirmed his faith. The Prophet then declared, "This man is my brother, my successor, and my caliph among you. Listen to him and obey him."

Staying Overnight in the Prophet’s Bed (Laylat al-Mabit)

According to biographers, on the night when the Quraysh planned to attack the Prophet Muhammad's (peace be upon him) house and kill him, the Prophet, under the guidance of the angel Jibril (Gabriel), did not sleep in his bed. He instructed ʿAli (peace be upon him) to lie in his place, saying, "Sleep in my bed and cover yourself with this green Yemeni cloak, and they will not harm you" [A verse was revealed on this occasion: Qur'an, 2:207].

That night, the Prophet left Mecca with Abu Bakr, while ʿAli slept in his bed. The Quraysh learned of the Prophet’s departure too late, as he had already left the city. ʿAli stayed in Mecca for three days to return the valuables that the people had entrusted to the Prophet (peace be upon him). After completing this task, he left Mecca and joined the Prophet.

His Marriage to Fatima (peace be upon her)

In the first, second, or third year of Hijra, the Prophet (peace be upon him) married his daughter Fatima (peace be upon her) to Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him). According to some narrations, the dowry was 500 dirhams (silver coins), equivalent to twelve and a half Awqiya of silver (each Awqia being forty dirhams). It is said that the dowries for the Prophet’s other daughters were also the same. However, other sources mention different amounts for Fatima’s dowry, and for more details, reference should be made to more comprehensive books on the subject.

His Children

During Fatima’s lifetime, Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) did not marry any other woman. Together, they had two sons, Imam Hasan (peace be upon him) and Imam Husayn (peace be upon him). They also had a third son, Muhsin, who [was miscarried due to a brutal assaul, hence] passed away before birth. Additionally, they had two daughters, Zaynab al-Kubra and ʾUmm Kulthum. After Fatima’s passing, Imam ʿAli married a woman from the Banu Kalb tribe named ʾUmm al-Banin, with whom he had several sons: ʿAbbas, Jaʿfar, ʿAbdullah, and ʿUthman, all of whom were martyred at Karbala. From his marriage to Khawla, the daughter of Jaʿfar ibn Qays from the Hanifa Tribe, he had a son named Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya. Imam ʿAli also had other sons and daughters from different wives, the details of whom can be found in historical texts.

The Hadith of Manzilah (lit. Position or Status)

According to narrations, Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) participated in all of the Prophet’s battles except for the Battle of Tabuk. The Prophet’s banner was always carried by ʿAli. During the Battle of Tabuk, the Prophet appointed ʿAli as his deputy in Medina, which led to rumors that the Prophet was displeased with ʿAli. When ʿAli raised the matter with the Prophet, the Prophet spoke the famous words, "Are you not pleased to be to me as Aaron was to Moses, except that there will be no prophet after me?"

If one studies the relationship between Moses and Aaron (peace be upon them), it becomes clear that Aaron was Moses’ brother and closest companion. By drawing this parallel, the Prophet affirmed that ʿAli held the closest and highest position next to him, equal in status except for the role of prophethood, which was unique to the Prophet himself.

His Bravery

Imam ʿAli's courage and valor in all the battles of Islam are legendary, and the books of "sira" (life and conduct) and hadith from Sunni sources are filled with accounts of his heroism. If one reviews the list of the slain polytheists in the Battle of Badr, it becomes evident that eight of the seventy enemies killed in the Battle were undoubtedly slain by ʿAli’s hand. This number does not include those whose deaths are disputed—whether they were killed by ʿAli or others—or those in whose deaths Imam ʿAli played a collaborative role.

In the Battle of Uhud, when many of the Prophet’s companions fled, Imam ʿAli was among the few who stood firm and shielded the Prophet (peace be upon him). In this battle too, several leaders of the Quraysh met their end at ʿAli’s hands. Among them was ʿAbdullah ibn ʿAbd al-Uzza ibn ʿUthman, also known as Talha ibn Abi Talha, from the Banu ʿAbd al-Dar Tribe, who carried the banner of Quraysh. Other prominent figures slain by ʿAli in the Battle of Uhud included ʿAbdullah ibn Humayd from the Banu Asad and Abu Umayya ibn Abi Hudhayfa from the Banu Makhzum Tribe.

The killing of ʿAmr ibn ʿAbd Wadd at the hands of Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) during the Battle of Khandaq (the Trench) is one of his most famous feats. In the Battle of Khaybar, the Prophet (peace be upon him) first handed his white banner to Abu Bakr, instructing him to capture one of the fortresses. However, Abu Bakr returned without success. The following day, the Prophet sent ʿUmar ibn al-Khattab, but he too was unsuccessful. The Prophet then declared, “Tomorrow, I will give the banner to a man who loves God and His Messenger, who is not a runaway, and through him, God will grant victory over this fortress.” He then summoned Imam ʿAli and handed him the banner, instructing him to advance until God would grant him victory. ʿAli took the banner, approached the fortress, and engaged in battle with its defenders. During the combat, one of the enemies struck Imam ʿAli’s shield from his hand. In response, Imam ʿAli pulled one of the fortress gates from its place and used it as a shield. He fought fiercely until God granted him victory, and the fortress fell into Muslim hands.

In the Battle of Hunayn, when the tribes of Hawazin suddenly attacked the Muslims from the mountain passes and many Muslims fled, Imam ʿAli was among the few who stood firm and did not abandon the Prophet (peace be upon him).

[Communication of] Surah al-Baraʾah

In the ninth year of Hijrah, the Prophet Muhammad (May Allah bless him and his Household) commissioned Abu Bakr to announce the verses of Baraʾah (the Surah of Immunity, the ninth surah of the Qur'an) to the polytheists of Mecca. This year, the polytheists had gone on pilgrimage separately according to the treaties they had with the Prophet. After Abu Bakr set out, Gabriel, by God's command, instructed the Prophet to appoint ʿAli (peace be upon him) to convey the message. According to this Surah, the polytheists who were permitted to perform Hajj under a general covenant could no longer approach the Kaʿaba and perform Hajj after the sacred months had passed; they were declared to be at war. Furthermore, those polytheists who had a specific treaty with the Muslims could only perform Hajj until the end of the term specified in their agreement. The Surah also referenced the hypocrites and those who had failed to participate in the Battle of Tabuk.

When this Surah was revealed, some individuals suggested that the Prophet send Abu Bakr to announce it to everyone during the pilgrimage. In response, the Prophet said that he had been commanded to declare this Surah either himself or through one of his Household members. Subsequently, he assigned Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) to recite the Surah to the people during Hajj.

Event of Ghadir Khumm

In the tenth year of Hijrah, after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage, the Prophet (peace be upon him) gathered the people at Ghadir Khumm, near Juhfa, before they dispersed to their homes. He delivered a famous sermon in which he proclaimed these well-known words regarding Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him): “For whomever I am the Master and Authority (Mawla), ʿAli is his Master and Authority. O God, befriend whoever befriends him, and be hostile to whoever is hostile to him. Support whoever supports him and weaken whoever forsakes him.”

Saqifah Banu Saʿida

Following the passing of the Prophet Muhammad (May Allah bless him and his Household), before his burial, the leaders of the Quraysh and the Ansar gathered in Medina and, after a brief verbal dispute, pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr.

This event has been extensively discussed between Sunni and Shi'a scholars. However, two points are clear: first, they pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr, who was chosen as the successor to the Prophet; second, Shi'a Muslims have never considered this allegiance legitimate, believing that the immediate succession of the Prophet should have been the right of ʿAli (peace be upon him). Thus, the conflict between Shi'a and Sunni Islam does not revolve around the historical fact of Abu Bakr's caliphate after the Prophet but rather concerns the question of rightful authority, which is fundamentally a religious and doctrinal issue.

From the speeches and statements of Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him), it is evident that he always regarded the caliphate as his rightful claim and saw no one else as more deserving of it. Nevertheless, he was compelled to pledge allegiance to Abu Bakr, ʿUmar, and ʿUthman to preserve the interests of the Muslim community and to avoid creating discord and division among Muslims. However, the matter of rightful authority remains a separate issue.

Islamic scholars differ on whether the leadership (Imamate) is a divine matter that should be appointed by God through explicit designation (Nass) or whether it is a political and worldly issue that depends on the choice and appointment by the influential and capable members of the community. Shi'a scholars view the leadership of the Ummah as a matter that must be divinely appointed, which occurs through the explicit designation of the Prophet Muhammad (May Allah bless him and his Household) or an infallible Imam.

After addressing the fundamental issue and establishing the necessity of appointing an Imam by God or by the people, discussions turn to identifying who this divinely chosen or popularly elected figure should be, and what qualities they must possess. It is evident from all perspectives that Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) was regarded by all Muslims as a distinguished and prominent individual whose candidacy and suitability for leadership were recognized from the very beginning. However, the question of why he was not chosen at that time is a historical issue worthy of exploration and discussion.

The primary reason behind the events at Saqifah Banu Saʿida and the agreement to choose Abu Bakr lies in the tribal and ethnic biases that served as the driving force behind many political developments in Islamic history.

A brief overview of the Saqifah incident indicates that there had long been an underlying rivalry between the Muhajirun (Emigrants) and the Ansar (Helpers). The Muhajirun regarded themselves as superior to the Ansar, the people of Medina, due to their earlier conversion to Islam and their kinship ties with the Prophet Muhammad (May Allah bless him and his Household). This sense of familial connection was crucial in human relations among the tribes. The Ansar, on the other hand, claimed that they provided refuge to the Prophet and the Muhajirun; had they not done so, it was uncertain what fate awaited the weak and vulnerable Islamic community in Mecca.

The discussions at Saqifah reveal these underlying rivalries and ambitions. However, in addition to the intense competition between the Ansar and the Muhajirun, there were also significant tribal rivalries within each group. The wounds from the pre-Islamic wars between the Aws and Khazraj tribes in Medina had not yet fully healed, and opportunities frequently arose for old grudges to resurface. Moreover, competition among various Quraysh tribes persisted, with weaker tribes such as Banu Tim and Banu ʿAdi struggling against the influence and power of stronger clans like Banu Umayyah, Banu Hashim, and Banu Makhzum.

In this context, the leaders of Quraysh, due to their residence in Mecca, a significant center in Arabia, and their major trade dealings outside Arabia, possessed stronger political acumen and had more political experience compared to the Aws and Khazraj, who were primarily engaged in agriculture. This allowed them to better prepare for future political events.

Three individuals from Quraysh emerged victorious in this power struggle: Abu Bakr from the Banu Tim Tribe, ʿUmar from Banu ʿAdi, and Abu ʿUbaidah Jarrah from the Banu Fihr clan (of Quraysh Zawahir).

[According to historical sources, the Quraysh tribe was composed of 25 clans. Among these 25 Quraysh clans, some resided in the lowlands of Mecca, known as "Quraysh al-Bata'ah" or "Quraysh of the Plains." Other clans, however, lived in the mountains and outside the city of Mecca, and they were known as "Quraysh al-Zawahir."]

Historically, we do not have evidence of a formal alliance among these three figures; however, the story of Saqifah reveals this collaboration. Utilizing their political skills, they capitalized on two key aspects: first, they took maximum advantage of the rivalry between the Aws and Khazraj tribes; second, they seized the moment—taking advantage of the absence of Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) and ʿAbbas, who were occupied with ritually washing, preparing, and burying the body of the Prophet Muhammad (May Allah bless him and his Household). The main argument presented by Abu Bakr and ʿUmar was that the Muhajirun, being relatives of the Prophet, had the right to the caliphate. If Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) had been present during these discussions, he would have been the prominent figure in this argument, as he had a longer history of sacrifice in Islam and was the closest person to the Prophet. Instead, Abu Bakr and ʿUmar shifted the focus to their sacrifices for Islam and their kinship with the Prophet, diverting the attention of the assembly toward themselves. In tribal systems, familial ties and tribal affiliations hold immense importance.

During the ensuing debate, Abu Bakr said, "Now, you can pledge allegiance to either ʿUmar or Abu ʿUbaidah." The two replied, "We will never precede you; extend your hand so we can pledge allegiance!" As they prepared to pledge allegiance, Bashir ibn Saʿd from the Khazraj tribe took the initiative and pledged allegiance first, fearing that Saʿd ibn ʿUbadah, who was also from Khazraj, might claim leadership. Thus, tribal rivalries influenced the outcome, and those who could manipulate the events to their advantage succeeded.

This powerful tripartite alliance remained intact. Upon his death, Abu Bakr appointed ʿUmar as his successor without consulting anyone or involving the leaders of Quraysh in the decision. When ʿUmar was on his deathbed, he lamented, saying that if Abu ʿUbaidah al-Jarrah had been alive, he would have entrusted the caliphate to him!

The Story of the Council

After being wounded and sensing his impending death, ʿUmar entrusted the matter of the caliphate to a council of six companions of the Prophet Muhammad (May Allah bless him and his Household), whom he claimed the Prophet had been pleased with. He appointed Abu Talha al-Ansari with fifty [armed] men to oversee this council and gave them three days to select one among themselves. The conditions for their selection were strict: if five agreed on one candidate and the sixth opposed, that sixth person would be executed. If four agreed on one and two opposed, the two opposing would be killed. If three supported one and three supported another, ʿAbdullah ibn ʿUmar [?]would choose between the two. If they did not accept his choice, the three who remained (among them ʿAbd al Rahman ibn ʿAwf) would have [a veto right, hence would have] their opinion prioritized, and if the other three did not accept their decision, they would be executed.

[The Council consisted of six people: ʿAli, ʿUthman, al-Zubayr, Talha, Saʿd ibn Abi Waqqas, and ʿAbd al-Rahman ibn ʿAwf who had exclusively been invested with a veto right. On the other hand, such great companions as Salman al-Farsi (d. 33 AH), Abu Dharr al-Ghifari (d. 32 AH), ʿAmmar ibn Yasir (martyred in 37 AH), and others who were present in Medina were not included in this council!]

This arrangement was structured in a way that seemingly guaranteed the selection of ʿUthman. Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) had foreseen this from the very beginning and had shared his concerns with his uncle ʿAbbas, as ʿAbd al-Rahman ibn ʿAwf was the brother-in-law of ʿUthman and would undoubtedly favor him. Similarly, Saʿd ibn Abi Waqqas, like Abd al-Rahman, belonged to the Banu Zahra clan and would likely support ʿAbd al Rahman. Since ʿUmar had stated that ʿAbd al Rahman's vote would carry more weight depending on which side he aligned with, it was evident that the votes of these three would favor ʿUthman. Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) had previously told ʿAbbas that the support of the other two (Talha and al-Zubayr) would not benefit him.

One may wonder, if ʿUmar viewed these six individuals equally, why did he prioritize ʿAbd al-Rahman ibn ʿAwf over the others? Why did he not assign this role to anyone else? The likely answer is that he understood the real competition would be between Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) and ʿUthman. Thus, Imam ʿAli would be on one side and ʿUthman on the other. If Talha participated in the council, he would not side with Imam ʿAli, as Talha belonged to the same tribe as Abu Bakr, who had already claimed the caliphate for himself. Imam ʿAli had always viewed the caliphate as his rightful claim, leading the Banu Tim Tribe to harbor animosity towards the Banu Hashim Tribe. Furthermore, ʿAbd al-Rahman ibn ʿAwf, regardless of where he stood, would have Saʿd ibn Abi Waqqas, his fellow tribesman, with him. Therefore, ʿAbd al-Rahman would not abandon his relative ʿUthman.

In this way, ʿUmar skillfully orchestrated the council's structure to ensure ʿUthman's election while seemingly absolving himself of the consequences of ʿUthman's caliphate. Thus, political interests and tribal considerations once again overshadowed the pursuit of justice, all conducted under the subtle guise of religious duty and support for the faith.

Caliphate

ʿUthman ascended to the caliphate at the end of the twenty-third year or the beginning of the twenty-fourth year of hijra, following the arrangement ʿUmar had established for the council. After twelve years of caliphate, he was assassinated in Dhul-Hijjah of the thirty-fifth year of hijra.

The events surrounding his assassination and the reasons for the people's rebellion against him are well-documented in historical texts. It is important to note that Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) neither participated in his assassination nor supported it.

However, as soon as he became caliph, the issue of ʿUthman's blood became a significant political matter against him. Since no one in Medina and among the Muslims was more prominent or more deserving of the caliphate than Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him), the people of Medina pressed for him to assume leadership. Nonetheless, many of the city's elites were not in favor of his caliphate. They understood that ʿAli was more dedicated to justice and the assertion of rights than to political maneuvering. The Prophet Muhammad's saying, "The best of you in judgment is ʿAli," was undeniably true regarding him.

As a result, many nobles and dignitaries grew fearful. They had not forgotten ʿUmar's strictness regarding financial matters and were accustomed to ʿUthman's extravagance and his liberal spending from the public treasury (Bayt al-Mal). Generosity and open-handedness were prominent traits of Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him), but these qualities were evident in his personal wealth, not in the management of public funds. He was meticulous with public finances, adhering closely to the principles of justice and Islamic law, which could not please those who had profited unjustly from ʿUthman’s leniency, amassing vast fortunes through unwarranted gains.

What Talha, al-Zubayr, Muʿawiya, ʿAmr ibn al-ʿAas, and others sought was not truly vengeance for ʿUthman's blood. The people of Kufa and Egypt had long expressed discontent with ʿUthman's governors and their abuses of public wealth.

Muʿawiya, having established a strong position in Damascus through years of governance, was well-prepared to pursue the caliphate by winning hearts with wealth and promises. He kept himself informed about ʿUthman’s situation and the conditions in Medina through his representatives and was aware that rebels and dissenters were converging on Medina. He had the opportunity to aid his relative ʿUthman and save him from danger. Talha and al-Zubayr, who were influential figures in Medina, could at least have called for calm and peace among the people. However, no movement was observed from any of them to assist or defend ʿUthman during his time of need. Only after ʿUthman’s assassination and during Imam ʿAli's caliphate did they raise their voices, claiming that ʿUthman had been unjustly killed and that vengeance for his blood was necessary.

What motivated these individuals to oppose Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) was the fear they harbored regarding his caliphate and his just approach to governance. Due to his commitment to justice and strict adherence to truth, Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) set aside any policy of leniency and flexibility from the very first day. He did not wish to placate his opponents with temporary compromises, instead choosing to confront them directly once he had consolidated his position. In the early days, Muqayra ibn Shuʿba and ʿAbdullah ibn ʿAbbas advised him not to make changes to the administration and retain the officials appointed by ʿUthman, suggesting that this would allow tensions to subside before he acted according to his wishes. Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) responded that he would never empower Muʿawiya or others like him over the Muslims and their wealth, as Muʿawiya was a man of the world, politics, and deception, not of faith, piety, and justice.

Therefore, the caliphate of Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) was grounded in justice, piety, virtue, and the prioritization of the rights of the oppressed and weak, rather than on political maneuvering and worldly interests. This approach was incompatible with the inclinations of many Arab elites, who, under the guise of supporting Islam, were primarily concerned with protecting their wealth, tribes, and kin.

Consequently, his caliphate lasted only a short time, enduring less than five years, during which he was constantly besieged by the power-hungry and wealth-accumulating factions, engaged in ongoing conflict and strife.

Talha and al-Zubayr, both coveting the caliphate, were dissatisfied with their allegiance to Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) and traveled to Mecca under the pretext of performing ʿUmrah. ʿAʾisha [one of the wives of the Prophet], a staunch opponent of Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him), was also in Mecca. Despite having offered no support to ʿUthman during his lifetime, upon hearing of Imam ʿAli’s caliphate, she was deeply upset and proclaimed that ʿUthman had been unjustly killed!

Talha and al-Zubayr found a suitable environment for their ambitions in Mecca and saw ʿAʾisha's significant influence among Muslims as an opportunity to openly oppose Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him). They planned to leverage the narrative of ʿUthman’s bloodshed to justify their actions and aimed to resolve the matter of the caliphate between themselves after defeating Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him). Following their consultations, they decided to march to Basra, intending to seize the [public] treasury located there, which held a substantial portion of revenue from Persia. They aimed to incite and mobilize the tribes and notable figures residing in the region to gather a formidable force against Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him).

ʿAʾisha was placed in a howdah and mounted on a [male] camel, and they set off from Medina to Basra. Upon their arrival, ʿUthman ibn Hunayf, Imam ʿAli’s representative, opposed their entry. Initially, a temporary reconciliation was reached, but one night, Talha and al-Zubayr attacked ʿUthman, capturing him, pulling out his beard, and threatening to kill him. However, fearing the wrath of his brother, Sahl ibn Hunayf, who was in Medina and might seek revenge with the help of other Ansar, they ultimately released ʿUthman.

Their next move was to seize the [public] treasury, where they brutally murdered seventy treasury officials and took control of the funds. Subsequently, a dispute arose between Talha and al-Zubayr over who would lead the prayer, resulting in an agreement that each day, one of their sons would take turns leading the prayers.

Upon hearing this news, Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) set out toward Basra. Upon his arrival in the city, he first sent a messenger to invite Talha and al-Zubayr to peace, but they rejected his invitation. He then sent another individual with the Qur'an to call them to the path of truth and adherence to divine commandments, yet the messenger was shot and killed.

Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) instructed his companions not to initiate combat unless attacked first. When Talha and al-Zubayr commenced their assault, the Imam was compelled to issue orders for battle. During this conflict, Talha was killed by an arrow that had been shot from ambush [by Marwan], while al-Zubayr left the battlefield but was subsequently killed by a man named ʿAmr ibn Jarmouz.

Following the ensuing battle, defeat befell the forces of Basra. However, a group surrounded ʿAʾisha's camel and fought fiercely until the camel collapsed, causing her defenders to scatter. Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) then ordered that ʿAʾisha be treated with respect and housed in a designated place while preparations were made for her journey back to Medina [accompanied by his brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr]. Additionally, he granted amnesty to the survivors of the Basran army, including ʿAbdullah ibn Al-Zubayr, Marwan ibn al-Hakam, the sons of ʿUthman, and other members of the Banu Umayyah, instructing that no harm befall their possessions, only their weapons be taken.

The Battle of Jamal took place on Thursday, the tenth of Jumada I in the year 36 AH. After this battle, Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) appointed ʿAbdullah ibn ʿAbbas as the governor of Basra and headed toward Kufa, arriving there on the twelfth of Rajab in the year 36. He wrote a letter to Muʿawiya, calling him to obedience.

Muʿawiya, who had long been plotting his rule and had consolidated his position in Syria, refused to comply under the pretext that ʿUthman had been unjustly killed and that he was the guardian of ʿUthman's blood, seeking vengeance against the murderers surrounding Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him). Thus, the matter escalated into war between Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) and Muʿawiya.

To secure his rear, Muʿawiya reconciled with the Byzantine Emperor, providing a payment to ensure this truce. On the fifth of Shawwal in the year 36, Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) set out from Kufa toward Syria, reportedly leading an army of ninety thousand men. He traveled from Kufa through Mada'in to al-Anbar and then reached al-Raqqa along the Euphrates River. He instructed that a bridge be built over the river, allowing his forces to cross into the lands of Syria.

Muʿawiya also mobilized his army, numbering approximately eighty-five thousand, and moved to Siffin, situated near the Euphrates, where he occupied the area designated for accessing water, preventing Imam ʿAli's forces from drinking. Following the orders of Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him), his soldiers pushed back Muʿawiya's forces from the water source but were instructed not to prevent them from accessing it.

Since the month of Dhul-Hijjah was a sacred month, during which fighting is prohibited in Islamic law, both sides agreed not to engage in combat until the end of Muharram in the year 37. After the conclusion of Muharram, a fierce battle broke out, lasting for several days, during which numerous prominent figures from both sides were killed. Among the most notable martyrs from Imam ʿAli's forces was ʿAmmar ibn Yasir, a distinguished companion of the Prophet Muhammad (May Allah bless him and his Household). His death was a source of humiliation for Muʿawiya, as it was well-known that the Prophet had said of ʿAmmar: "The rebellious faction will kill you."

However, with cunning and skill, Muʿawiya took advantage of the ignorance and blind obedience of his soldiers, claiming that they had not killed ʿAmmar, but rather the one who brought him into battle was to blame. Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) retorted, "Then did the Prophet also kill Hamza since he brought him into the battlefield?!"

After several days of intense and bloody battles, which nearly resulted in the defeat of Muʿawiya’s army, Muʿawiya, with the cunning of ʿAmr ibn al-ʿAas, devised a strategy to sow division and discord among Imam ʿAli's soldiers. He ordered that Qur'ans be raised on the tips of spears and called upon Imam ʿAli's followers to adhere to the Qur'an and to appoint it as an arbitrator. This ploy proved to be highly effective, leading some of Imam ʿAli's companions, notably Ashʿath ibn Qays al-Kindi, to compel him to cease hostilities and initiate negotiations.

The unity and cohesion of Muʿawiya’s forces contrasted sharply with the disarray and divisions among Imam ʿAli’s troops. This discrepancy stemmed from the fact that Muʿawiya’s soldiers had long been distanced from Medina, the political center and gathering place of the Prophet Muhammad’s companions, and they recognized no leader other than Muʿawiya himself. Through generosity and his innate patience, Muʿawiya had established himself as an undisputed leader among his troops.

Syria was one of the major centers for gathering Muslim forces, as it lay in opposition to the Byzantine Empire. The caliphs were compelled to maintain a significant and seasoned military presence in Syria for defense against this external threat. In contrast, the cities of Kufa and Basra, close to Medina, were home to many prominent companions of the Prophet (peace be upon him) during the caliphates of ʿUmar and ʿUthman. These companions were revered as authorities on religious matters and were held in high esteem. Consequently, these two cities were filled with various individuals holding differing opinions, beliefs, and preferences, each believing themselves equally knowledgeable about Islamic rulings and considering themselves as jurists or authoritative figures in their own right.

Although the esteemed personality of Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) was superior to theirs, and these individuals were temporarily under his leadership, the apparent unity was fragile. It could easily be disrupted by minor provocations or schemes. Muʿawiya understood this well and had weakened their resolve to support Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) through bribery, worldly promises, and monetary gifts. Therefore, he was able to implement his plan skillfully amid the chaos of battle.

When the Qur'ans were raised on the tips of the spears, a large number of people compelled Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) to abandon hostilities. It was agreed that Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) and Muʿawiya would each select a representative to arbitrate and resolve their dispute. The representative chosen by Muʿawiya was a notable figure of his time, ʿAmr ibn al-ʿAas ibn Wa'il al-Sahmi, a distinguished member of the Quraysh, known for his intelligence, shrewdness, and his penchant for causing discord. The raising of the Qur'ans was also orchestrated by him.

However, Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) was not permitted the freedom to choose his representative. He wished to appoint ʿAbdullah ibn ʿAbbas, renowned for his insight, intelligence, and knowledge, but those around him opposed this choice. Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) then suggested Malik al-Ashtar, a steadfast and loyal companion, but he too was rejected. Instead, it was insisted that Abu Musa al-Ashʿari be his representative. Unlike ʿAmr ibn al-ʿAas, who was allied with Muʿawiya and served as his advisor, Abu Musa had adopted a position of neutrality during the conflict, having distanced himself from either side. At the time of Imam ʿAli’s ascension to the caliphate, he was the governor of Kufa and understood that Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) would not allow him to remain in Kufa, prompting him to discourage the people from supporting the Imam.

During his tenure as governor of Basra and Kufa, Abu Musa had not demonstrated any significant wisdom, resourcefulness, or competence; rather, he was perceived as weak and indecisive. However, his association with the Prophet Muhammad (May Allah bless him and his Household) garnered him respect, and since most of Imam ʿAli’s soldiers hailed from the Yemeni and Qahtani tribes, the commanders desired to appoint him as their representative, as the Ashʿari Tribe was also among the Yemeni and Qahtani tribes. Ultimately, against his own wishes, Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) was compelled to select Abu Musa for representation in the arbitration process. A letter regarding the arbitration and the designation of the two arbiters was signed, and it was agreed that the arbiters would meet in the month of Ramadan that year at a location between Kufa and Syria.

The story of the two arbiters and their meeting in Dumat al-Jandal, located in Adhruh, is well-documented in historical texts. During this arbitration, ʿAmr ibn al-ʿAas openly devised a scheme and, disregarding the agreed-upon terms of the arbitration and the principles of Islamic law, deceived Abu Musa al-Ashʿari. He manipulated him into speaking first, during which Abu Musa renounced both Imam ʿAli and Muʿawiya from the caliphate. Then, ʿAmr began his remarks, stating that he had witnessed this person—referring to Abu Musa—remove Imam ʿAli from the caliphate. Therefore, he declared, he too would depose Imam ʿAli and appoint Muʿawiya as the caliph!

ʿAmr ibn al-ʿAas's actions were a clear violation of the arbitration agreement and demonstrated that the era of adhering to truth and justice among the Muslims had passed. Instead, deception and trickery had taken the place of faith and conscience, illustrating that Muʿawiya's political maneuvering to attain power through cunning had effectively undermined Imam ʿAli's commitment to the path of truth and righteousness.

Contrasting Policies

Al-Jahiz, a prominent figure among the Muʿtazilites, authored a notable book about the ʿUthmanites (al-ʿUthmaniyya), expressing support for them. However, despite his support for ʿUthman, he provided insights into the political strategies of Imam ʿAli and Muʿawiya. Ibn Abi al-Hadid included parts of this discussion in Volume 10 of his commentary on Nahj al-Balagha (pp. 238 and onward). Here, we present a brief comparison he made between the policies of Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) and those of Muʿawiya.

"Some claimants of reason and discernment believe that Muʿawiya was more profound, rational, and insightful than Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him); however, this is not true. Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) acted solely in accordance with the Book of God and the Sunnah during battles, while Muʿawiya behaved otherwise, employing any form of deception, whether lawful or unlawful, in warfare. ʿAli stated that one should not initiate combat with the enemy until they themselves strike first, and one should not pursue fleeing enemies or kill the wounded. He also instructed not to break down closed doors. Anyone who relies on the guidance provided in the Book of God and the Sunnah of the Messenger (peace be upon him) would refrain from excessive strategizing. Due to his piety and righteousness, ʿAli was only permitted to act in ways that pleased God, steering clear of the tactics employed by those who relied on trickery and cunning.

Thus, Muʿawiya's strategy was worldly, aimed at achieving power by prioritizing falsehood over truth and disregarding the Book of God and the Sunnah of the Messenger (peace be upon him) whenever it contradicted his desires. This approach was tailored to advance personal agendas and, indeed, it proved effective, as Muʿawiya was successful. In contrast, Imam ʿAli's policy was divine, based on unwavering adherence to the truth, the Book of God, and the Sunnah of the Messenger (peace be upon him). This could only succeed if his companions and the prominent figures who had pledged allegiance to him also adhered to this policy and accepted his authority without question. However, this did not happen, as the desires of his supporters and their weak faith, coupled with Muʿawiya's unrestrained cunning and the unity among his followers, hampered Imam ʿAli's ability to implement the truth."

The Emergence of the Khawarij

The Kharijites (al-Khawarij) were those who opposed Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) due to his agreement to arbitration. They claimed that ʿAli's caliphate, following the people's allegiance to him, was a divine matter, and he had no right to submit to arbitration in this regard. Their famous slogan, "There is no sovereignty but God’s" reflected this sentiment. According to Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him), this slogan contained a kernel of truth, yet it was used to promote a false agenda. " There is no sovereignty but God’s" means that the establishment of religious laws is a divine matter, and no human has the right to enact an independent judgment as a religious decree. However, arbitration in cases of dispute, especially in warfare, is a different matter.

In response to the Khawarij's objections, the Imam stated that they had agreed with the arbitrators to act according to the Qur'an and its rulings. Thus, the Khawarij's opposition was entirely unfounded. Influenced by this deceptive slogan, they, as ignorant and fanatical people, blindly adopted it as their guiding principle. Their fanaticism and ignorance reached a level where, throughout their protests, opposition, and battles, no rational argument supporting their theories or actions was ever presented, except for this slogan. In their objections to Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him), they neither cited a verse from the Qur'an, nor a hadith, nor any logical reasoning.

Instead, whenever they were confronted with opposing arguments, they would shout, "There is no sovereignty but God’s ". This superficially appealing phrase, the essence of which originates from the Qur'an (Sovereignty belongs only to Allah.) [Qur'an, 6:57 and 12:40, 67], had a different meaning and context, yet it became the pretext for this faction.

Here, it is important to note the differences between the armies of Syria and Kufa in terms of their motivations and psychological impulses. As mentioned, the Syrian army was distanced from the centers where the Companions of the Prophet Muhammad (May Allah bless him and his Household) and the Followers (tabiun) were engaged in articulating divine rulings. Among the Syrian forces, there were few prominent figures from the Companions or Followers; and even if there were a couple of Companions present, they lacked deep religious sentiments. They were merely soldiers, ready to fight anyone, even ʿAli ibn Abi Talib (peace be upon him), in exchange for the generous salaries and provisions that Muaʿwiya provided them. There was no evident sense of pain or religious fervor among them; if there was any strong sentiment, it was merely tribal or factional loyalty.

In contrast, the people of Iraq, particularly Kufa and Basra, regarded themselves as enlightened in matters of faith, believing that their actions had a foundational religious basis. However, this claimed enlightenment was superficial, as evidenced by the Khawarij, who, having no real understanding of their own slogan, reverted from their beliefs. Many others in subsequent political developments demonstrated that they preferred wealth and power over religion and truth. Their later behavior towards Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) and his sons, Imam al-Hasan (peace be upon him) and Imam al-Husayn (peace be upon him), serves as evidence of this claim.

The Battle of Nahrawan

In summary, a group of individuals influenced by the slogan "La Hukm illa lillah" (There is no sovereignty but God’s) gathered together and appointed ʿAbdullah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi as their leader. They decided to leave Kufa and assemble near the bridge of Nahrawan, urging their supporters in Basra to join them at the specified location. It is reported that about four thousand people gathered in Nahrawan and rebelled against Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him).

At that time, Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) had stationed his army at Nukhayla, preparing for another battle against Muawiya, when alarming news reached him regarding the atrocities committed by the Khawarij. Among the reported crimes was the brutal killing of Abdullah ibn Khabbab, an innocent man, simply because he was a supporter of Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him). Worse still, the Khawarij did not spare his pregnant wife, murdering her as well. Imam ʿAli’s companions urged him to address this rebellion first.

In response, Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) directed his army toward the Khawarij. Initially, he sent Qais ibn Sa’d ibn ‘Ubadah and Abu Ayyub al-Ansari to advise and reason with them, but to no avail. Upon arriving at Nahrawan, Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) once again attempted to bring them to their senses through dialogue, engaging in a debate with ʿAbdullah ibn al-Kawwa’, one of their prominent leaders. Though ʿAbdullah was defeated in the argument, he stubbornly refused to submit to the truth.

Left with no choice, Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) engaged in battle with them, resulting in the near-total annihilation of the Khawarij, save for a few survivors. After this victory, Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) intended to resume his campaign against Muʿawiya, but his troops, citing exhaustion, refused to comply, leading the Imam to return to Kufa. The Battle of Nahrawan occurred in the year 38 AH.

His Martyrdom

Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him), disheartened and weary from the disloyalty of his companions, continued to organize his army. However, Muʿawiya did not allow him any peace, sending raiding parties to plunder and terrorize the people of Iraq, particularly around Kufa.

These attacks, known in history as "al-Ghārāt" (the raids), were so effective that Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) once exclaimed out of deep frustration: "Nothing remains for me but Kufa, which I take and leave, or circle and widen."

The Khawarij, still harboring resentment from their defeat, secretly continued their propaganda against the Imam. This ultimately led to a conspiracy that resulted in his martyrdom. According to historical accounts, a few months after the Battle of Nahrawan, three prominent members of the Khawarij made a pact to assassinate Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him), Muʿawiya, and ʿAmr ibn al-‘Aas on the same night. The task of killing Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) fell to a man named ʿAbd al-Rahman ibn Muljam al-Muradi.

Ibn Muljam traveled to Kufa, where he met a woman named Qutam from the tribe of Taym al-Rabab. Her father and brother had been killed in the Battle of Nahrawan, and she harbored deep hatred towards Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him). Being a beautiful woman, Ibn Muljam proposed marriage to her, and she agreed on the condition that her dowry would be a male slave, a female slave, three thousand dirhams, and the assassination of Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him)!. Already intent on committing this act, Ibn Muljam accepted. He also gained the support of two others, Wardan and Shabib ibn Bujrah, who became his accomplices.

On the 19th of Ramadan in the year 40 AH, while Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) was leading the Fajr prayer in the mosque, Ibn Muljam struck him on the head with a sword coated in poison. The fatal blow took its toll, and after two days of enduring the wound, Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) succumbed to his injuries and was martyred on the 21st of Ramadan.

Before his passing, Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) had given instructions that his killer should not be struck with more than one blow, and that he should not be mutilated. During his last days, the Imam also ordered that Ibn Muljam be fed from the same food as his captors, demonstrating his commitment to justice and mercy even in his final moments. Initially, the Imam’s grave was kept hidden out of fear of his enemies, with only his close companions aware of its location. This grave is now situated in Najaf, at a site known as al-Ghari, which today is a place of pilgrimage for Muslims, especially Shi'a believers from around the world.

The personality and character of Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) are such that anyone who studies the history of Islam and examines the different sects and schools of thought within it will quickly realize that no figure has been as deeply loved or as vehemently opposed as ʿAli ibn Abi Talib. He stands as a unique figure in Islamic history, surrounded by the most loyal of supporters and the most bitter of enemies.

Over the centuries, countless lives have been sacrificed out of love for him, and many battles have erupted between those who supported him and those who opposed him. For a time, it was customary to curse him from the pulpits of the Muslim world, while in later periods, his virtues and those of his family were extolled from those very same pulpits, and curses were instead directed toward his enemies.

Some elevated him to the level of divinity, while others disavowed both him and his followers. This alone is enough to demonstrate that after the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), no one held a greater and more significant position in the Islamic world than ʿAli. Otherwise, how could such widespread and fervent devotion and opposition have arisen around any other figure?

Ibn Hajar al-ʿAsqalani, in his book Tahdhib al-Tahdhib (7/339), quotes the famous jurist and hadith scholar, Ahmad ibn Hanbal [d. 241/855], the founder of the Hanbali school of thought, as saying:

“No companion of the Prophet has had as many virtues narrated about him as ʿAli.”

Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) is a figure who never worshipped idols, was the first Muslim, and the first to perform prayers. He was chosen by the Prophet (PBUH) for the position of guardianship (wilayah), succession, and vicegerency.

ʿAli was the Prophet's adopted son, raised, nurtured, and educated by him. He was the Prophet’s son-in-law, the father of his grandchildren, and served as his military commander, standard-bearer, confidant, scribe, counselor, and special envoy.

The Prophet (PBUH) called him his brother, the leader of the Arabs, the leader of the Muslims, the Commander of the Faithful, the vanquisher of the oath-breakers (Nakithin), deviants (Mariqin) and oppressors (Qasitin), the pillar of religion (Yaʿsub al-Din), the house of knowledge, the gate to the city of knowledge, the repository of wisdom, the true friend (Siddiq), the distinguisher between right and wrong (Faruq), the hand of God (Yadullah), the proof of God (Hujjat Allah), the best among mankind, and the most just of judges.

Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (d. 170/786), in his comparison of Imam ʿAli with other Companions, remarked:

"His conversion to Islam was the earliest, his deeds were the greatest, his nobility the highest, his asceticism unmatched, and his eagerness for jihad unparalleled. Both friends, out of fear, and enemies, out of envy and hatred, concealed his virtues, yet despite this, the East and the West of the world are filled with his merits."

It has been said that numerous Qur'anic verses were revealed in praise of ʿAli ibn Abi Talib (peace be upon him). Among them is a narration from ʿAbdullah ibn ʿAbbas, who said that 300 verses of the Holy Qur'an were revealed in honor of Imam ʿAli.

In addition, the virtues and merits of Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) are generally divided into two categories: the first being the hadiths and narrations from the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) regarding him. In the view of scholars of hadith and Sunni tradition, the virtue of a Companion is primarily based on the narration of hadiths from the Prophet about them. Many books have been authored by Sunni scholars on the virtues of Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) in this context. The most famous hadith concerning his virtue is the well-known Hadith of Ghadir Khumm, which must be regarded as one of the clear indications of Imam ʿAli's succession and leadership and vicegerency. From the dawn of Islam until today, this noble hadith has been a source of inspiration for the Shi'a and a central theme in their thought, literature, epics, poetry, and art.

Another famous hadith is one that was referenced during the expedition of Tabuk, in which the Prophet said to Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him), “You are to me as Aaron was to Moses, except there is no prophet after me.” Additionally, there is the well-known "Hadith of Brotherhood" (mu'aakhaat), in which the Prophet (PBUH), upon arriving in Medina, established bonds of brotherhood between the Muhajirun (Immigrants) and the Ansar (Helpers). He paired each of them with another, making them brothers, and declared Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) as his own brother. This, for every Muslim, is the highest honor and merit. The story of this brotherhood is mentioned in most books of hadith and biography, including Sirat Ibn Hisham (2/150) and al-Tabaqat by Ibn Sʿad (1/14).

Among the major hadiths included in Sahih al-Bukhari, under the chapter on the virtues of ʿAli ibn Abi Talib (peace be upon him), is the narration where the Prophet (PBUH) said to Imam ʿAli, “You are from me, and I am from you.” Additionally, there is the hadith regarding the Prophet's bestowal of the banner to ʿAli on the Day of Khaybar, which was previously mentioned.

It should be noted that while Sahih al-Bukhari includes a hadith in the chapter on the virtues of ʿAli ibn Abi Talib (peace be upon him), it omits the prelude. This prelude details that the Prophet (PBUH) first gave the banner to Abu Bakr, and then to ʿUmar, but neither succeeded. It was only after this that the Prophet declared the famous phrase, "I will surely give the banner tomorrow…," and the next day gave it to Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him). It is clear that this emphatic statement, "I will surely give the banner tomorrow…," must have a context, and the omitted prelude is precisely what was mentioned.

Numerous other hadiths from both Sunni and Shi'a sources recount his virtues and attributes. Some of the most famous include: the "Hadith of the Beginning of the Call" (Hadith al-Dar), the "Hadith of ʿAli’s Early Embrace of Islam", the "Hadith of First to Pray", the "Hadith of the Idol Breaker", the "Hadith of the Bird" (Hadith al-Tayr), the hadith narrated by ʿAʾisha, the hadith narrated by Umm Salama, the "Hadith of the Gate to the City of Knowledge"*, and the "Hadith of the Trench" (Hadith al-Khandaq).

The second category of Imam ʿAli's virtues encompasses his personal and spiritual qualities, which were evident throughout his life. These traits were so prominent that some, even during his lifetime, deviated from the path of truth and elevated his status to divinity. Stories of his generosity and selflessness are well-known. One of his most notable qualities is his unmatched courage, as briefly mentioned in relation to the battles of the Prophet (PBUH). His superhuman bravery, military skill, command, and the miraculous feats of his sword, Dhulfiqar, in fortifying the foundation of Islam, have gained worldwide fame.

His political, military, administrative, economic, and social oversight (and supervision), as well as his dedication to promoting knowledge, literature, and educating the youth, along with his mastery of all sciences, established him as the greatest and most learned and just ruler in history. Rhetoricians have described his speech as being below divine revelation but above human discourse. In terms of the strength of his reasoning, eloquence, clarity, conciseness, and comprehensiveness, as well as his wisdom and counsel, he had no equal. Whenever he spoke on any subject, he brought it to perfection.

To witness the miraculous eloquence of Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him), one must turn to Nahj al-Balagha, where his sermons on the creation of the universe, the status of the Prophet (PBUH) and his family, his defense of his rights, and his encouragement for jihad are recorded. In addition, his letters to Muʿawiyah and his descriptions of the peacock, the bat, the world, and the states of believers and hypocrites offer a profound insight into his intellect. Particularly notable are his instructions to Malik al-Ashtar and Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr—governors of Egypt—and his guidelines for governors, tax collectors, judges, and military commanders, which are also included in Nahj al-Balagha. Reading these reveals the difference between ʿAli's words and those of others, and it clarifies why the Prophet (PBUH) called him the "Wali of Allah" and "Commander of the Faithful."

Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) was not only a champion in the fields of war, politics, and spirituality, but in his role as the "Perfect Man," he surpassed every legend and myth. He conquered the world with all its deceptions and temptations and mocked death. He was the embodiment of pure faith and the highest advocate of truth. The chains of Islamic mysticism, brotherhood, and chivalry trace back to him. Muslim dervishes and laborers view him as their model and support. Every young Muslim athlete stepping onto the field or every soldier sacrificing for honor and belief invokes the name of Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him).

The first person to address the matters of the Oneness of God and His attributes in eloquent sermons from the pulpit was Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him). These discussions sparked the interest of inquisitive minds and laid the foundation for the emergence of theological issues. Ibn Abi al-Hadid also attributes a similar significance to Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) in jurisprudence, asserting that he was the first to show people the path of reasoning in legal rulings.

For instance, when ʿUthman sought to impose punishment on a woman who gave birth six months after marriage, ʿAli (peace be upon him) intervened and cited the verse: “And the carrying and weaning of him is thirty months” (Quran 31:14). The reasoning behind this was that God specified the total duration of pregnancy and nursing as thirty months, which must be interpreted minimally. The nursing period is two years, or twenty-four months, as indicated by the verse “Mothers shall suckle their children for two full years, that for such as desire to complete the suckling” (Quran 2:233). Thus, this leaves six months as the minimum period of pregnancy. Such legal reasoning had not been previously demonstrated by anyone.

The rulings that Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) provided during the caliphate of ʿUmar on certain issues are well-known, which is why ʿUmar stated: “No one should issue a fatwa in a gathering where ʿAli is present.” However, Ibn Abi al-Hadid's assertion that Sunni jurisprudence is connected through Abu Hanifa to Imam Jaʿfar al-Sadiq (peace be upon him) and, subsequently, to Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) is not entirely accurate. While Abu Hanifa learned jurisprudence from Imam al-Sadiq (peace be upon him), his legal opinions and rulings did not receive the approval of the latter, particularly regarding the issue of qiyas (analogical reasoning), as Shiite jurisprudence starkly contrasts with that of Abu Hanifa. However, Shiite jurisprudence, whose primary sources are the Imams (peace be upon him), is undoubtedly derived from Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him).

During his brief caliphate, Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) embodied complete justice and impartiality in matters of judgment. It is recorded in his biography that whenever he intended to purchase something, he would first ask the seller whether he knew him. If he found that the seller recognized him, he refrained from buying anything from him, lest he be biased in his favor. He regarded all Arabs and non-Arabs equally, provided they were Muslims, and held no tribal or ethnic prejudices. This is why the ordinary people of Kufa, particularly those who were non-Arab and engaged in various trades, loved him, unlike many of the Arab elite, who were secretly displeased with him for this very reason. One possible explanation for their weak support for him was their tribal loyalties.

He was very strict regarding public funds (Bayt al-Mal), and his treatment of his daughter Zaynab and his brother ʿAqil is well-known. His predecessor, ʿUthman, favored the elite and prioritized his own tribe above all others in every respect. This tribal favoritism was rigorously pursued by Muʿawiya and the Umayyad caliphs after him, who referred to all non-Arab conquered peoples as "mawālī" and regarded them as their slaves (or servants). Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him), being from the aristocracy of Arab society and one of the distinguished tribes of the Quraysh, was exceptional in viewing all people equally from an Islamic perspective. This demonstrates that he possessed a character that transcended the limitations of race and geography, without a doubt.

During his sixty-nine months of caliphate, Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him) was relentless in implementing the precise laws of Islam and safeguarding the rights of Muslims, never resting for a moment, and he did not hesitate to sacrifice his life for this cause. He was continuously among the people in Kufa, accessible to all. The mosque of Kufa served as his office, meeting place, and the center of all his political and social activities.

In the realm of justice under Imam ʿAli (peace be upon him), all social, racial, and ethnic inequalities melted away. Having tasted oppression in Mecca and in the Shʿib of Abu Talib, he recognized that the path to salvation for the community lay in reforming the judiciary, establishing courts, codifying laws, ensuring the independence of judges, and educating them. To ensure the effective administration of justice and the implementation of rulings, he established unprecedented regulations. He ordered the compilation of legal rulings to be codified into law, tested the judges, held training sessions, and sent clear guidelines to them, either individually or as circulars.